Writing Glossary

Glossary of Words and Phrases Related to Academic Writing

abbreviation: noun COUNTABLE a shortened form of a word or a phrase : Abbreviations, especially acronyms, are common in reports written for specialists (scientists, economists, etc.). If the text is written for non-specialists, the abbreviations should be written out in full where they are first mentioned in the text. Compare with acronyms.
abstract: noun COUNTABLE a very short form of an article or other text, giving only the most essential information
abstract: adjective existing as a thought or feeling rather than as a something concrete, material, tangible : "Note, too, the value of using specific examples such as "lemons and carrots” rather than abstract words like agriculture …” (Pyne 2018)

abstract

ideas
concepts
nouns
terms
principles
form
thought
theory
quality
notion
abstraction: noun the consideration of the qualities and characteristics of an entity rather than its physical properties
abstract noun: noun UNCOUNTABLE a noun which references a state, idea, action, process, or quality rather than something concrete or tangible : Examples: truth, happiness, growth, frequency. Abstract nouns are usually uncountable but may have countable uses, e.g friendships. Compare with concrete noun. See more about abstract nouns on the abstract nouns page.
academic integrity: noun phrase being honest and truthful about your work : Academic integrity includes a) not plagiarising, b) citing your sources correctly, c) presenting only work which is your own, d) collaborating with others only within the limits of your institution’s guidelines, e) not cheating in exams, f) not submitting work which has been previously submitted. More information about academic integrity is available on the plagiarism faqs page.
Academic Word List: noun phrase A list of words presumed to be more commonly used in academic writing than other types of discourse. It was developed by Averil Coxhead and you can see the reference to her original article in the bibliography. You can also practice using collocations of words from this list on the Collocation Game Page.
acknowledgement: noun COUNTABLE recognition of a source of information by stating its origin with a correctly formatted citation : See also attribution.
acknowledgement: noun COUNTABLE a statement of appreciation of help given

acknowledgement

proper
grateful
written
public
appropriate
due
full
positive
formal
explicit
acronym: noun COUNTABLE an abbreviation of a series of words (usually a noun phrase) consisting of the first letter of each word in the phrase : UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization; ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian Nations. Compare with abbreviation.
active: adjective GRAMMAR describes a verb when the subject of the sentence performs the action : In the sentence, "The boy is washing the dog.”, "The boy” is the subject and performs the action. "is washing” is a verb in the active voice. Compare with the passive.
addition: noun a textual element (sentence, paragraph, section) which adds further information about an argument : These elements are often introduced with adverbials such as "In addition”, "Furthermore” etc. See how adverbials are managed on the adverbials page.
adjective: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word which provides more information about the noun to which it is attached (either preceding the noun or with a copula verb)
adjective complement: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR an adjective complement is the post-modification of an adjective phrase of which there are three types: 1) a prepositional phrase; 2) an infinitive clause; 3) a that clause
adjective phrase: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR an adjective phrase consists of a head (an adjective) and optionally pre-modification in the form of an adverb and/or post-modification in the form of an adjective complement
advantages and disadvantages: noun COUNTABLE a text organisation pattern in which an item or items are described in terms of their advantages and disadvantages : See the advantages and disadvantages page to see how this in managed in an authentic text.
adverb: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word which provides more information about a verb, adjective or adverb to which it is attached
adverbial: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR an adverb phrase used to provide circumstantial information about a clause, to indicate the writer’s stance, or to link units of discourse by indicating their relationship :
Examples:
Circumstance Adverbials

"And because there is only one winter each year, then you know how many years old the tree is" (Syme 2019). (reason)

"Then we lower the sides of this bowl-shaped force field by decreasing the electric current that runs through the wire" (McCormick 2020). (means)

"Through stories passed down from generation to generation for hundreds or even thousands of years, these mythological creatures have become legends" (Little 2023). (means)

"Through stories passed down from generation to generation for hundreds or even thousands of years, these mythological creatures have become legends" (Little 2023). (time)

"To make a viable seed, pollen from one part of the flower must fertilize the ovules in another part of the flower" (Harkess 2021). (purpose)

"To make a viable seed, pollen from one part of the flower must fertilize the ovules in another part of the flower" (Harkess 2021). (location)

Stance adverbials

"While we think of perfect vision in humans as being 20/20, typical vision in dogs is probably closer to 20/75" (Dreschel 2020). (doubt, uncertainty)

"That means astronomers will have the chance to study these rings – and one day, hopefully, we’ll be able to answer all of your questions and more." (Kuhn 2020). (attitude)

"But according to culinary scientists, they contain flavor compounds that taste even better when eaten together" (Miller 2019). (source of knowledge or information)
Linking adverbials
See how linking adverbials are managed on the linking adverbials page.
adverbial particle: noun phrase GRAMMAR a group of words which are often attached to verbs to create multi-word verbs with new meanings. They are also used to create extended prepositional phrases : Examples: about, across, along, around, aside, away, back, by, down, in, off, on, over, past, round, under, up. To create a multi-word verb (phrasal verb): sit down, stand up. To create an extended prepositional phrase: up in the sky, down in the dumps.
affix: noun a group of letters attached to the beginning or end of a word which changes to meaning or form of that word : See also prefix and suffix.
allegory: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH a literary work in which the story represents particular qualities, ideals or moralities
alliteration: noun FIGURE OF SPEECH the repetition of consonants for its effect, especially used in poetry (and occasionally in newspaper headlines, football chants and children’s nicknames) : Not used in serious non fiction writing.
allusion: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH an indirect reference to something outside the text (e.g. another text, a person, a well known story)
ambiguity: noun COUNTABLE uncertainty about meaning or reference because of the way a phrase or sentence is structured : Adjective: ambiguous

ambiguity

moral
lexical
sexual
syntactic
inherent
possible
deliberate
considerable
potential
semantic
anachronism: noun COUNTABLE a reference to something which is cannot really happen because it is in the wrong time in history
analogy: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH the use of a comparison between things which share some similar features in order to make an explanation clearer : by analogy

analogy

close
good
simple
historical
striking
interesting
obvious
useful
direct
illuminating
analyse: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to critically examine and describe the details of a topic, argument, proposition, etc. : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
analysis: noun the process of breaking apart an entity (idea, topic, object …) into its component parts in order to better understand and be able to describe it

analysis

statistical
detailed
quantitative
comparative
critical
careful
strategic
systematic
structural
scientific
anaphora: noun UNCOUNTABLE the use of a word or phrase to refer to something mentioned earlier in a text : Anaphoric devices help to create cohesion in a text. See examples on the Reference Page and compare with cataphoric, which is much less common. Adjective: anaphoric. Adverb: anaphorically.
animate noun: noun COUNTABLE a noun which refers to anything alive (people, animals, fish ..) : antonym: inanimate
annual: noun a publication which is issued once a year
annual: adjective happening once a year

annual

report
conference
event
income
sales
leave
review
budget
results
growth
anonymous: adjective describes a source for which no author is known
antecedent: noun the thing, already mentioned in a text, which is being referred to
antithesis: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH words or ideas which are in contrast because they are opposites
antonym: noun COUNTABLE SENSE RELATION a word which has the opposite meaning to another word : not usually used with gradable words. See also synonym.
APA style: noun phrase STYLE the official guide to style concerning citations, referencing, grammar, formatting and more, as prescribed by the American Psychological Association : Read the APA guide on the APA site.
aphorism: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH a short sentence containing some important thought or observation
apostrophe: noun COUNTABLE PUNCTUATION a punctuation mark (’) used to indicate possession or the omission of a letter or letters : Fred’s work wasn’t submitted on time. See the Apostrophe Page
appendix: noun an additional section of a text placed towards the end in which extra information such as diagrams, tables, survey results may be placed for consultation
apposition: noun UNCOUNTABLE placed next to : Noun phrases are often placed next to another in English to provide more information about, or explanation of, a noun phrase immediately preceding it. See examples on the appositive noun page
approximation: noun COUNTABLE giving a number which is not precise but is rounded up or down to a more memorable whole number often accompanied by a suitable approximator : This is especially important when describing data or graphical information. See the approximation page.
approximator: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word often used in hedging to indicate that something (quantity, time, degree, frequency) is not precise : Examples: approximately, roughly, often, around, somewhat. See Adjectives and Adverbs of approximation.
archaism: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH the use of a word or phrase or construction which is no longer in current use : Archaisms should not be used unless for special (e.g. humorous) effect.
argue: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to give reasons and evidence to support a point of view : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
argument: noun a statement used with reasoning and, usually, evidence to show that something is true

argument

oral
invalid
strong
similar
good
closing
convincing
logical
legal
valid
article: noun GRAMMAR the word "the” (definite article) or "a(n)” (indefinite article)
article: noun a piece of writing on a particular subject written for publication in a journal, magazine or newspaper
aspect: noun a grammatical category describing how a verb treats time (whether it is in progress, completed, momentary, etc.). In English there are two categories of aspect: progressive or non-progressive (ongoing or finished) and perfective or non-perfective (expressing a relationship between the past and the present or not) : See also tense .
assertion: noun COUNTABLE a strong statement of a writer's belief or opinion : Assertions not supported by evidence, reasoned argument or respected authority have little value.
assessment: noun COUNTABLE the process of determining the value of something according to certain criteria : Student academic texts are normally assessed by using pre-established criteria in the form of descriptors or rubrics.

assessment

environmental
performance
formative
summative
initial
accurate
comprehensive
psychological
accurate
preliminary
assignment: noun a task required by an authority (usually an instructor) to be completed according to given criteria before a certain date (the deadline)
attribute: verb to state who wrote the information or quotation
attribution: noun a statement about who the author of a work is considered to be : See also acknowledgement.
attributive adjective: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR an adjective which is used before a noun : Most adjectives can be used both attributively (before a noun) and predicatively (after a verb). See also predicative adjective.
audience: noun COUNTABLE the person or people you as a writer expect will read your text : Consideration of your audience is important because it will (or at least should) influence how you write in terms of lexis (e.g. specialist or non specialist), grammatical complexity, style and tone. You also need to take into account age, expected background knowledge, cultural sensitivities, and formatting and publishing conventions.
authentic text: noun COUNTABLE a text written by someone writing about matters in their own specialist area for other specialists or for the general public, but not for English teaching purposes : It is very difficult to use authentic texts for teaching purposes for students at with a low level of competence in English, but for students who are studying at a higher level (for EAP purposes) we believe that the use of authentic texts is advisable, not least in order to avoid the stilted English sometimes found in texts written specifically for teaching purposes.
author: noun COUNTABLE the writer of (an article, a report, a book, etc.). The author may be a group of people if they write on behalf of an organisation (a corporate author).
author: verb TRANSITIVE FORMAL to write (an article, a report, a book, etc.)
authoritative: adjective reliable, accurate and respected as a source of information, instruction, or advice : authority in this sense derives from respected qualifications, proven mastery, long experience and (especially in academic circles) widely cited publications

authoritative

source
information
text
guide
book
statement
reference
interpretation
study
answer
authority: noun COUNTABLE a respected expert on a particular subject matter : Adjective: authoritative
auxiliary verb: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR verbs which have an auxiliary (helping) function rather than a main verb function. They may be the primary verbs, be, have or do, or the modal verbs can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would. : "Today most people do not get enough sleep". The verb do, which in this case is acting as an auxiliary, along with the word not gives us the negative of the main verb get. "What is the earliest event that you can remember?" In this sentence can is a modal auxiliary.
biannual: noun COUNTABLE a journal or other publication which is published twice a year : See also biennial.
bias: noun STYLE the tendency to adopt a particular stance or to support a point of view, in an unfair way : Academic writing needs to be objective and balanced. See also bias-free language.
bias-free language: noun phrase STYLE language which is free of prejudice towards others especially regarding questions of race, gender, age, ethnic identity, sexual orientation, and so on : The APA style guide has advice on avoiding biased language.
bibliography: noun COUNTABLE a list of sources referenced in your text, or consulted during the preparation of your text and relevant to your topic : A List of References normally contains only works cited in your text, whereas a bibliography may be more wide-ranging.
biennial: noun COUNTABLE a journal or other publication which is published once every two years : See also biannual.
binomial phrase: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR A phrase containing two words in the same grammatical category (noun - noun, verb-verb etc.) coordinated by "and" or "or" : See examples of binomial phrases here.
biography: noun COUNTABLE an account of someone’s life and works
block quote: noun a quotation formatted by placing it in a separate indented paragraph : A block quote is used without quotation marks where the quotation is longer than 40 words instead of inserting it in line with quotation marks. See example on the Quotations Page.
brackets: noun PUNCTUATION punctuation marks ( ) used to enclose and separate a short portion of text : Also known as parentheses in American English.
brainstorm: verb to gather possible ideas (usually in a group) by thinking freely about a topic with a view to evaluating these ideas later : See how you can brainstorm to get ideas and sources together on the brainstorming page.
cardinal number: noun a number used for counting or calculation : Seven Samurai. Seven plus one equals eight. See also ordinal number.
cataphoric: noun UNCOUNTABLE the use of a word or phrase to refer to something mentioned later in a text : Compare with anaphora, which is much more common. Adjective: cataphoric. Adverb: cataphorically.
cause: noun something (usually an action) which provokes an event or a result (an effect)
cause and effect: noun a common organisation pattern in which causes and their effects are analysed or used in support of the writer’s arguments : See how cause and effect is used in a real text on the cause and effect page.
CEFR: noun ACRONYM the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages is a tool for describing language ability on a 7 point scale : Learn more about theCommon European Framework of Reference here.
central determiner: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR central determiners (so-called because they take their place between predeterminers and postdeterminers) are articles, demonstrative determiners,, and possessive determiners : Examples: a, the, these, those, my your, their.
chronology: noun the order of events in time : Adjective: chronological. See also sequence.
citation: noun COUNTABLE words spoken or written by another person, the source of which is declared : Often "citation” is taken to mean the correctly formatted source of the quotation or paraphrase. See how to cite on the citation page.
cite: verb to write words spoken or written by another person and to formally declare the source : There are strict rules about how the source of a quotation or paraphrase should be formatted. See how to cite on the in-text citations page.
claim: noun COUNTABLE a statement of the writer’s belief : In writing, claims need evidence. The reader needs to know why an assertion made by the writer should be believable.

claim

main
strong
legitimate
valid
major
prior
original
central
minor
dubious
clarify: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to make something clearer by simplifying or using examples or analogies : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
classification: noun COUNTABLE the act of grouping elements into various classes according to their characteristics : See how classification is used in a real text on the classification page.
classify: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to arrange items mentioned in the task description into groups according some some given or useful criteria : Used as an instruction word. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a group of words containing a subject and a finite verb. A clause may form a sentence or part or a sentence. It is highest level of grammatical structure below the sentence. A clause may function as a noun, adjective or adverb. A clause is not the same as a phrase.

clause

main
subordinate
relative
dependent
adverbial
independent
conditional
adjectival
finite
clause pattern: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a group of clause elements which form a commonly used syntactic structure consisting minimally of a subject and a verb phrase. The addition of other elements (e.g. direct object, indirect object, prepositional phrase, adverbial) creates more complex structures. These are all fundamental structures in academic writing :
Examples:

subject – verb (SV) pattern

subject – verb – adverbial (SVA) pattern

subject – verb – complement clause (SV +CC) pattern

subject – verb – direct object (SVO_d) pattern

subject – verb – direct object – adverbial (SVO_dA) pattern

subject – verb – direct object object predicative SVO_dP_o pattern

subject – verb – direct object – prepositional object (SVO_d O_p) pattern

subject – verb – indirect object – direct object (SVO_i O_d) pattern

subject – verb – object – complement clause (SVO +CC) pattern

subject – verb – prepositional object (SVO_p) pattern

subject – verb – subject predicative (SVP_s) pattern
cliché: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH a phrase which has become fixed and is overused : Everyone uses clichés. They are unavoidable. However, it is good practice not to overuse them run your writing otherwise your text becomes stale and boring.
closed class word: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR words which belong to closed classes such as article, conjunction and preposition. No new words can be admitted to these classes. By contrast open class words belong to open classes to which new words may be added. : Closed class words are also known as function words.
cognate: noun COUNTABLE ETYMOLOGY a word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to that of another language because both words have similar roots
coherence: noun UNCOUNTABLE coherence is concerned with the way a text seems to have a connected and logical flow : Unlike cohesion, coherence is not a feature of the text itself; it is the reader who decides how coherent a text is based on his or her perception of the logical flow of the arguments in the text.
cohesion: noun UNCOUNTABLE cohesion is a feature of the text itself and concerns the way in which certain grammatical items (such as pronouns) and words can connect a sentence to previous (and, sometimes, later) ones : Cohesion is not coherence but cohesive ties contribute to the coherence of a text by providing the reader with pointers to the connections in the text.
cohesive: adjective connected, tied together : Cohesive text is text which has the quality of being a unified whole because of the connections (cohesive ties) within the text itself.
collective noun: noun phrase COUNTABLE a noun which represents a group of things, animals or people : Examples: pack, flock, herd, shoal, tribe, gang, mob. "Gang" and "mob" have negative connotations.
collocate: noun a word which is commonly associated with or found in proximity to another word : "sweet", "strong", "milky" are all common collocates of the word "tea". You can see a list of common collocates of the word "comparison" a few words below in this glossary.
collocate: verb to place a word in proximity to another word : "sweet", "strong", "milky" collocate well with the word "tea".
collocation: noun COUNTABLE COHESIVE DEVICES the tendency of a particular word or phrase to be found in the proximity of another : See the examples on the Collocation and Noun Modification page.
colon: noun COUNTABLE PUNCTUATION a punctuation mark (:) used as a stop, often to introduce an example or clarification of the information in the text preceding the colon See the Colon Page
comma: noun COUNTABLE PUNCTUATION a punctuation mark (,) which separates one part of a sentence from another : Commas are used to separate items in a list and to separate clauses. See the Comma Page
command word: noun COUNTABLE a verb used in the description of a writing task to define what is required in the task : Example verbs are analyse, discuss, evaluate, identify, outline, summarise. Also known as task verbs or instruction words. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
comment: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to state your opinion about something mentioned in the task description, supported by evidence, examples or analogies : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
comparative: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR the form of a word (adjective or adverb) used to make comparisons : Also known as the comparative degree. The comparative is formed with the suffix -er or with the word more. Most common gradable adjectives use -er; hot → hotter. Longer adjectives usually use more; beautiful → more beautiful. See also superlative.
compare: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to examine similarities and differences of something specified in a task description : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
compare and contrast: noun COUNTABLE a text organisation pattern in which an item or items are described in terms of their similarities and differences : See the compare and contrast page to see how this in managed in an authentic text.
comparison: noun COUNTABLE a textual element (sentence, paragraph, section) in which similarities and differences are examined : See how comparison is used in a real text on the comparison/contrast page 1 or comparison/contrast page 2

comparison

direct
interesting
detailed
simple
systematic
statistical
fair
appropriate
good
useful
complement: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR the part of a sentence which follows the verb and completes the sentence. The subject and the complement share the same reference; they refer to the same thing : A complement may be a noun phrase or an adjective phrase. See also subject complement, object complement, and adjective complement.
complex sentence: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a sentence which contains one or more dependent clauses in addition to the main (independent) clause : Complex sentence: "When glutamate hits our tongues, it tells our brains to get excited" (Miller n.d.).
complex transitive verb: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a verb which requires a direct object and an object complement (also known as an object predicative) : In the sentence "Some kinds of light make you more alert and more awake.", "you" is the object, and "more alert and more awake" is the object complement (an adjective phrase). See also monotransitive and ditransitive.
composition: noun COUNTABLE a short essay written by a student as an exercise in writing
compound noun: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a noun phrase constructed with a noun and another noun (or nouns), a verb, or an adjective : table lamp (noun + noun), gunfire (noun + verb), current affairs (adjective + noun)
conclusion: noun COUNTABLE the end of a piece of writing contained in a separate paragraph or paragraphs, usually consisting of a summary of the main points and any necessary remarks or recommendations
concord: noun UNCOUNTABLE GRAMMAR agreement between the subject and the verb (singular or plural). This is something to check when you are reviewing. A grammar checker should flag this. : If the subject is singular e.g. "the cat", the verb must match - "the cat is hungry"; if the subject is plural e.g. "the cats", the verb must match - "the cats are hungry".
concrete: adjective having substance, clarity and definition

concrete

terms
evidence
proposals
examples
form
expression
action
proof
noun
results
concrete noun: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a noun which references something physical rather than something abstract like ideas, qualities, processes, etc. Examples: bicycle, brick, knife, skyscraper. Compare with abstract noun.
conjunction: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word which connects words, phrases and clauses. Now usually referred to as coordinators or subordinators, according to their function : Examples: COORDINATORS: and, but, or, nor .... SUBORDINATORS: after, since, as, although, because, if ....
connotation: noun COUNTABLE PRAGMATICS the additional or incidental meanings, associations or references which a word, phrase or sentence might have in addition to its obvious core meaning : We think of words and phrases as having one or a very few meanings which we can define reasonably well. But in fact these words and phrases live in a cloud of associated references, meanings and ideas which may invoke different things to different people depending on their background knowledge, culture, sex etc. As writers we also choose our words (sometimes perhaps subconsciously) to evoke particular connotations. See also denotation.
content word: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR words which refer to things, state, actions or qualities; they are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. These words convey meaning even when used alone, unlike function words, which have little meaning on their own. Function words have grammatical uses. Examples are articles, conjunctions and prepositions. : Content words are also open class words.
context: noun COUNTABLE the text which surrounds a word, phrase or sentence and which influences the meaning of those elements

context

different
historical
political
wide
social
particular
specific
appropriate
cultural
contraction: noun GRAMMAR the short form of a phrase where missing letters are indicated by an apostrophe : Example: do not - don't. Used in speech and informal writing. You shouldn't normally use contractions in academic writing.
contrast: noun a textual element (sentence, paragraph, section) in which differences are examined : See how contrast is used in a real text on the comparison-contrast page 1 or comparison-contrast page 2

contrast

marked
sharp
stark
complete
direct
strong
striking
total
great
clear
contrast: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to highlight differences between two or more things specified in a task description : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
controlling idea: noun phrase COUNTABLE the main idea of a piece of writing (an extended essay or research paper) usually expressed in a thesis statement in an introductory paragraph
converse: noun UNCOUNTABLE SENSE RELATION a type of antonymy where there is a reciprocal rather than an opposite meaning : Examples: give and receive, husband and wife.
coordinator: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word which connects words, phrases and clauses. A coordinator links words, phrases and clauses which have the same syntactic status (they are not subordinate). Also known as coordinating conjunctions. : Examples:
COORDINATORS: and, but, or, nor ...

"In the 1950s, television sets were bulky and the picture was in black and white" (How Does a Television Set Work? n.d.).

"Some dinosaurs evolved wings and began to fly" (Guijarro-Clarke and Paps 2020).

"It’s very brief but it can be very revealing" (Fedrizzi and Malik 2022).

"Most modern birds have scaly feet, but none are scaly all over" (Poropat 2020).

SUBORDINATORS: after, since, as, although, because, if ...

"Some are dangerous because they spread disease, like mosquitoes that can carry malaria" (Gentle 2020).

"Light from the Sun is strong in blue, short wavelength light, although it includes all other colors as well" (Stevens 2015).

COORDINATORS with ELLIPSIS
Ellipsis is common with coordinators because coordinators link clauses with similar syntactic structures, so some elements in the second part are often elided.

"Studying bones can tell us about movement but not behaviour" (Winder and Shaw 2019).
Studying bones can tell us about movement but [studying bones can] not [tell us about] behaviour.

"They aren’t as strong as primary sources but are still useful" (Britten 2022).
They aren’t as strong as primary sources but [they] are still useful.

"A lack of sleep can also make us more emotional and can contribute to depression" (Krigolson 2023).
A lack of sleep can also make us more emotional and [it or a lack of sleep] can contribute to depression.

WH-WORDS: who, what, which, where, when, why ...
Wh-words also act as clause links but they are also part of one of the linked clauses rather than a separate element joining two separate clauses.
copula: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a verb which links a subject to a complement : The main function of the verb to be is as a copula. Other verbs commonly used as copulas are: seem, appear, keep, remain, stay, become, grow, turn out, end up, smell, taste.
copyright: noun the right of a person, persons or legal entity to assert rights of ownership and reproduction of their creative work
corpus: noun COUNTABLE a collection of texts used to investigate linguistic features : Plural: corpora. Example: The British National Corpus.
countable noun: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a noun which can have both singular and plural forms : Examples: COUNTABLE: friend (s), friends (p); biscuit (s), biscuits (p). UNCOUNTABLE (or mass noun): shopping, happiness, peace. See also mass noun.
counter argument: noun phrase an argument against a previously stated argument, statement, or point of view : In stating a case it is important to look at other possible points of view and offer reasons and evidence why these may not be as strong as the case you are making
cover page: noun phrase COUNTABLE a page attached to the front of an essay or report giving information such as the title, date of submission, the author's name and (for school or college) perhaps the course name and instructor's name or information about academic integrity : Normally you would be given a pre-formatted cover page which you just have to complete (and sometimes sign). Also known as a cover sheet.
critique: noun a detailed evaluation or criticism of a piece of writing - both of the writing itself and on the opinions contained therein : Also used as a verb: to critique
cross-reference: compound noun a reference in a piece of writing to another reference elsewhere in the same document : Often indicated by "See also", but also by hyperlinks in online texts.
dash: noun COUNTABLE PUNCTUATION a dash is used to enclose various elements such as dependent clauses and parenthetical material : See the Dash Page
deduction: noun COUNTABLE a process of logical reasoning from know facts such we can be certain that the conclusion is true : Verb: deduce. See also inference. Deduction is a form of inference.

deduction

logical
valid
brilliant
simple
intelligent
rational
accurate
informed
reasonable
natural
define: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to clearly state the precise meaning of something specified in a task description : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
deixis: noun UNCOUNTABLE PRAGMATICS deixis refers to the way in which we identify references and their referents in context, especially references to place, time and persons. When we read or use a word like "this", "that", or "those" we know that these are pointers to something in the text and that we can retrieve that information. Even the word "the" is a deictic. It tells us that there is something specific that we can find within the text or in the world at large. : Personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, it ....), demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those), place adverbs (here, there), and time adverbs (now, then ...) are the main deictics used in text. See also reference and the reference page.
demonstrate: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to use evidence and/or examples to support and clarify something mentioned in the task description : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
demonstrative: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a subclass of determiners which help to indicate reference to an antecedent in a text. They alway precede a noun and as such are not to be confused with demonstrative pronouns : The demonstratives are this, that, these, those.
demonstrative pronoun: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a pronoun which has a pointing function indicating a reference to be found elsewhere in the text : demonstrative pronouns include this, that, these, those.

"On Earth you would make concrete from gravel or sand, cement and water. We have none of those things on the Moon, but what we do have is lunar dust and sulphur. These can be melted and mixed together" (Whittaker 2021).

"There were never more than a few white tigers in the wild. The last one was spotted more than 60 years ago.That makes sense in terms of evolution" (Cushing 2020).
denotation: noun COUNTABLE PRAGMATICS the core meaning of a word or phrase; the part of the meaning of a word or phrase which connects it to something we understand in the real world or in an imagined or fictional one : The word tree has a central meaning and we can all immediately visualise a physical tree when we read this word. But this word is used in many ways (tree of life, evolutionary tree, etc.) and it has many and varied connotations depending on the context. See also connotation.
dependent clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a clause which cannot stand alone as a separate sentence and only has sense when attached to a main clause. Also known as a subordinate clause : Example: "Foods turn brown and crispy when we cook them because of two chemical reactions" (Miller n.d.).. Foods turn brown and crispy when we cook them is the main clause and can stand alone as a sentence. because of two chemical reactions is a (non-finite) dependent clause and cannot stand alone as a sentence. It "depends" on the main clause, in this case providing a reason.
derivation: noun COUNTABLE or UNCOUNTABLE GRAMMAR a change in the class or meaning of a word by adding a prefix or a suffix : Examples:

Prefixes: "dis" to signal the opposite (agree - disagree); "pre" to signal before (view - preview);

Suffixes: "ly" to change class - adjective to adverb (clear - clearly); "tion" to change class - verb to noun (associate - association).
describe: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to give a clear account of something mentioned in the task description in such a way that a reader might have a clear understanding of what is described : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
determiner: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a determiner is a word which is used with a noun and which limits the reference of the noun in a particular way : The following are categories of determiners: 1) articles (a book, the book I began to read yesterday); 2) demonstratives (this book, that book over there); 3) possessives (my book, her book); 4) quantifiers (some books, many books); 5) numerals (one book, fifteen chapters).
direct object: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a direct object is the "thing" which is directly affected by a transitive verb. It may be a noun, noun phrase, nominal clause or a pronoun : See also indirect object
discipline: noun COUNTABLE an area of study
discourse: noun UNCOUNTABLE written or spoken communication

discourse

spoken
political
written
everyday
medical
legal
public
literary
ordinary
discourse analysis: noun phrase UNCOUNTABLE the study of how text is used for particular purposes in socio-cultural situations
discuss: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to write critically about the important details of a topic, argument, proposition, etc. "Critically" means giving considered opinions about various aspects of the topic. : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
dissertation: noun COUNTABLE a long text normally written by a student to demonstrate mastery of a particular area of study
distinguish: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to highlight differences between two things specified in a task description in such a way as to make it clear what characteristics separate and classify these things : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
ditransitive verb: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a verb which requires a direct object and an indirect object : Example: As the weather becomes a little warmer, too, this gives us that pleasant feeling that summer isn’t too far away. "us" is the direct object and "that pleasant feeling that summer isn’t too far away" is the indirect object. See also monotransitive and complex transitive.
document: noun COUNTABLE a text written for a particular purpose and in a particular format

document

legal
original
relevant
important
official
formal
written
confidential
final
DOI: acronym COUNTABLE a Digital Object Identifier is an alphanumeric digital identifier of an object : A DOI name allows an object, such as a publication, to be to linked to information about that object. See more information at doi.org.
draft: noun COUNTABLE a version of a piece of writing which is not complete or is yet to be reviewed and revised

draft

final
original
preliminary
rough
revised
initial
alternative
unfinished
unpublished
definitive
dynamic verb: noun COUNTABLE a verb which denotes something which changes over time. These are processes, events, actions, activities. : Here are some examples: "It’s typical – you’re waiting at a bus stop for ages, then three buses come along at once" (Bamford and Mayers n.d.). "... we typically perform worse in working memory tests if we have to do another, distracting task" (Völter n.d.). " ... there are several theories as to why tai chi may improve brain health" (Nyman n.d.). "Its ingredients become brown while cooking in the oven" (Miller n.d.). The verbs come along, perform, become, and improve are all dynamic in these sentences. See also static verbs.
ed-clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a particle clause (past participle) often used as a post-modifying clause of a noun phrase : See examples on the ed-clause page
edit: verb to review and revise a piece of writing before final submission
edition: noun COUNTABLE 1. one of a series of publications issued at regular intervals; 2. a single publication which may be republished with additions and/or alterations

edition

new
revised
current
recent
previous
original
updated
final
expanded
illustrated
editor: noun COUNTABLE someone who reviews and revises a text
effect: noun the result of a particular action or initiating cause

effect

adverse
significant
profound
beneficial
positive
devastating
damaging
important
powerful
elaborate: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to provide further information about some aspect of item(s) mentioned in the task description : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. This would normally be a secondary instruction in a task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
ellipsis: noun UNCOUNTABLE a cohesive device, similar to substitution, where an element is omitted because it can be retrieved from the context of the text : See more about ellipsis on the ellipsis page.
ellipsis: noun UNCOUNTABLE the omission of a part of a sentence usually indicted by ellipsis points " . . . ". There should be three ellipsis points and there should be a space before and after each one.
embedding: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR the insertion of one phrase or clause inside of another (also known as nesting) : Embeddings are common in complex noun phrases. See the noun phrase examples page.
empty subject: noun phrase COUNTABLE The pronoun "it" is used to in some sentences (often concerned with time, weather and distance) as an empty (or dummy) subject. In these sentences "it" does not refer to anything - there is no referent to be found in the text. : Examples: It's a long way to Tipperary. It's time to go. Contrast with "it" in the following text: "Earth’s spin is important for life. It causes day and night. It’s also important for ocean tides" (Laycock 2023). Here, "it" is referential: it refers to Earth’s spin. See also expletive and existential there.
endnote: noun COUNTABLE a note containing further information or explanations added to the end of a chapter, section or article
end-weight: noun UNCOUNTABLE GRAMMAR the strong tendency in English to place longer, more complex structures towards the end of a sentence : Consider this sentence: "But it is not yet known if tai chi is better for improving these aspects over other types of exercise and mindful activities" (Nyman n.d.). The weightier part of the sentence is at the end. We could rewrite this as "Whether tai chi is better for improving these aspects over other types of exercise and mindful activities is not yet known. In this case we have to hold a more complex structure in memory before we get to the shorter "not yet known" bit. It seems harder to process.
enumerate: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to provide a numbered list of item(s) requested in the task description : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
enumeration: noun UNCOUNTABLE the ordered listing of items in a text : See how enumeration is used in a real text on the enumeration page.
epigram: noun COUNTABLE a very short piece of text saying much in a few words
ergative verb: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a verb which can be used both transitively and intransitively : Example: "Technology will no doubt improve over the next 500 years, too" (Little and MacDonald 2021). improve is intransitive
"This will certainly improve sleep, and may reduce risk of later disease" (Stevens 2015). improve is transitive
essay: noun COUNTABLE a piece of writing on a particular topic often written by students as a demonstration of their writing ability or their knowledge of a particular area of study
euphemism: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH a word or phrase used to substitute for an unpleasant, taboo, or offensive one
evaluate: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to state your opinion about the value of the arguments, proposals, propositions etc. in the task description. Your opinions should be supported by evidence and/or reasoned argument. : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
evidence: noun UNCOUNTABLE information presented as support for the truth of an argument

evidence

empirical
new
clear
sufficient
direct
scientific
strong
conclusive
ample
hard
exclamation mark: noun COUNTABLE PUNCTUATION an exclamation mark is used to emphasise or draw attention to something : See the Exclamation Mark Page
existential there: noun COUNTABLE FUNCTION WORD a device for introducing new information in the subject position of a sentence. Usually only given (already mentioned or shared information) is placed in the subject position of a sentence but occasionally the subject is new information and it may be contained in a long clause which might seem clumsy at the beginning of a sentence. In this case the word "there" is used as an empty subject followed (usually by the verb "be") and then the new information. In the sentence "There's a reason why pizza is so popular.", the real subject is "a reason why pizza is so popular", and we could put this in the subject position and say "A reason why pizza is so popular exists." This is not too difficult to process but if we have a much longer subject it gets more difficult: "There are a number of other specific conditions that may also be associated with abnormal brain wiring" (Barker 2017). " To start the sentence with "a number of other specific conditions that may also be associated with abnormal brain wiring" as the subject would be inelegant to say the least. : Here are some more examples: "There are three basic strategies for dealing with vinegar syndrome: ..." (Ahmad n.d.) . "... there are several theories as to why tai chi may improve brain health" (Nyman n.d.). "In the early 1990s, there was significant excitement in the field about the possibility of recovering DNA from dinosaurs" (Götherström and Dalén n.d.). "Finally, there’s a discussion to be had about how specialists in different disciplines should work together" (Prendergast n.d.).
explain: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to give clear reasons for something requested in the task description : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
expletive: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR A word such as "it" or "there" which takes the syntactic place of another : Example: "There was no possibility of taking a walk that day" (Charlotte Bronte). See also empty subject and existential there.
exposition: noun COUNTABLE text (in an essay, report or research paper) written to present information in a clear, measured, logical and well argued style
expository: adjective used to describe non-fiction writing which is explanatory or descriptive rather than persuasive : Compare with persuasive

expository

writing
text
prose
essay
style
lecture
purposes
articles
discourse
passages
extract: noun a short section of writing taken from another document
extraposed subject: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a subject placed towards the end of a sentence rather than at the beginning with a 'dummy subject', it, taking its place at the beginning : Example: "It would be easy to assume evolution works by continuously adding features to organisms, constantly increasing their complexity" (Guijarro-Clarke and Paps n.d.) . The more normal SVC construction would be: "To assume evolution works by continuously adding features to organisms, constantly increasing their complexity would be easy". The first version obeys the principle of end-weight.
extraposition: noun UNCOUNTABLE GRAMMAR the use of "it" in the subject position of a sentence to refer to a displaced (extraposed) clause (finite or non-finite) : Example: "It would be easy to assume evolution works by continuously adding features to organisms, constantly increasing their complexity" (Guijarro-Clarke and Paps n.d.). To turn this around and put the clause back in the subject position would result in "To assume that evolution works by continuously adding features to organisms, constantly increasing their complexity would be easy".
feedback: noun UNCOUNTABLE information provided by a reviewer or examiner on the value of a piece of writing with suggestions about how it might be improved

feedback

positive
negative
immediate
useful
good
constructive
valuable
appropriate
helpful
effective
figure of speech: noun COUNTABLE an expression used to convey a particular meaning but which is not always obvious from the words used : Examples are similes, metaphors, idioms, metonymy and meronymy.
finite clause: noun GRAMMAR a clause which contains a finite verb (one which has a subject and which shows tense) and which can stand as an independent clause See also non finite clause.
finite verb: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a verb which show a relationship with a subject in person and/or number and shows tense : See also non-finite verb.
focus: noun a clear and well defined idea around which a sentence, paragraph, section, or entire piece or writing is constructed : See also topic and thesis.

focus

main
central
major
primary
principal
particular
prime
important
specific
footnote: noun COUNTABLE a note containing further information or explanations added to the end of a page
foreword: noun a short introduction (usually to a book or lengthy article) often written by someone other than the author of the main work, providing preparatory information about the work
formal words: noun phrase words which are used in official or technical documents but which may not often be used in everyday speech or writing : commence (formal) for begin (informal); purchase (formal) for buy (informal)
format: noun COUNTABLE the layout and typography of a text : You should abide by formatting guidelines if they have been stipulated.
formulaic writing: noun phrase writing which consists mainly of fixed words or phrases and/or clichés : There are many fixed phrases and idioms in English and, used correctly, are perfectly acceptable. But over-use can make a text tedious to read. However, if you are a non-native speaker of English learning to write academic text you may find resources such as the Academic Phrasebank quite useful.
freewriting: noun UNCOUNTABLE to write freely and quickly for a short timed period without regard to format, grammar punctuation etc. in order to generate ideas
full stop: noun COUNTABLE PUNCTUATION a punctuation mark (.) which marks the end of a sentence : Also known in American English as a period.
function word: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR words which have grammatical uses but which have little meaning on their own; examples are articles, conjunctions and prepositions. By contrast, content words (lexical words) do convey meaning even when used alone; examples are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. : Function words are also closed class words.
generalization: noun COUNTABLE A statement based on inference or limited facts or evidence which may or may not be true

generalization

broad
sweeping
empirical
hasty
inductive
natural
simple
gross
wide
rough
genitive: noun COUNTABLE the form of a noun which indicates possession. In English it is indicated by the genitive marker ’s for a single noun and ’ for a plural noun : Examples: "a doctor’s surgery" (one doctor), "chimpanzees’ working memory" (many chimpanzees), "the Earth’s circumference", "people’s quality of life", "Newton's laws". There are also genitives of time: "yesterday's rain"; genitives of measure: "eight hour's sleep", group genitives: "Marks and Spencer's cafe". Elliptic genitives: "South Korea’s income was more than ten times higher than Ghana’s (Teal n.d.)" (Ghana’s income), and independent genitives: "Some disorders specifically associated with the condition include traumatic brain injury, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis and stroke. (Barker 2017)". These are often reduced simply to Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s.
genre: noun COUNTABLE STYLE a particular style in any of the arts : In writing, genre refers to a particular type of writing where particular conventions apply such as prose, poetry, a novel, science fiction, comedy, tragedy.
gerund: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a verb ending in -ing but used as a noun : "Reliving and sharing our personal past is part of what makes us human." (Hodgetts n.d.)
glossary: noun COUNTABLE a list of definitions and explanations of words and phrases, such as this one, explaining terms used in a particular content area, arranged alphabetically. This writing glossary contains nearly 500 headwords. It contains entries of use to students and teachers of academic writing. As well as definitions, most entries contain examples from authentic texts and links to further information elsewhere on this site. There are also many cross references to facilitate rapid consultation of unfamiliar terminology. The glossary is fully searchable.
gradable: adjective SENSE RELATION describes words which may have a property to a greater or lesser extent : the property is normally described by an adjective (small, smaller; good, better, ..). This is considered as a subclass of antonymy.
graph: noun COUNTABLE an visual representation of how different series of numbers are related to each other : For example: line graphs, bar or column graphs, pie graphs, Also known as charts.
header: noun COUNTABLE text (such as a chapter or section title) placed in the top of every page in a text
heading: noun COUNTABLE the title of a section of text : A heading should be as short and informative as possible.
headword: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR the headword (or head) is the main word in a phrase. Other parts of a phrase have a modifying or grammatical relationship with the head : In the phrase "Insects that fly at night" "Insects" is the head (noun) and "that fly at night" is a post-modifying relative clause.
headword: noun COUNTABLE LEXICOGRAPHY the headword is the word found at the beginning of an entry in a glossary or a dictionary. It is the word which is explained or defined in the glossary or dictionary entry.
hedge: verb to avoid absolute commitment to an argument or thesis by using words or grammar which introduce an element of doubt or tentativeness : See how hedging is managed on the hedging page.
hedging: noun UNCOUNTABLE the avoidance of absolute commitment to an argument or thesis by using words or grammar which introduce an element of doubt or tentativeness : This technique may also be used not because you have doubts about your argument but because it may be easier for your reader to accept your ideas if they are expressed less forcefully. See how hedging is managed on the hedging page.
hook: noun COUNTABLE a sentence in an introductory paragraph used to raise interest in the topic : Mainly for student essays; not much used in serious academic writing.
hypernym: noun COUNTABLE SENSE RELATION a word which is at a higher level of generality than another : Example: a flower is a hypernym of rose. Similarly, a rose is a hyponym (the opposite of hypernym) of flower. Hypernyms are often used when we want to use a more general word to refer back to something more specific mentioned earlier in a text. Hyponyms are often used when we give examples: "The intense industrial processes [ …] strip away many beneficial nutrients such as fibre, vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals" (Hoffman n.d.). "Nutrients" is the more general category (hypernym) and "fibre", "vitamins", "minerals" and "phytochemicals" are the more specific hyponyms.
hyphen: noun COUNTABLE a short line which connects two parts of a compound word : self-help, eye-opener; See the Hyphen Page
hyponym: noun COUNTABLE SENSE RELATION a word which is at a lower level of generality than another : Example: a rose is a hyponym of flower. Similarly, a flower is a hypernym (the opposite of hyponym) of rose. Hyponyms are often used when we give examples: "The intense industrial processes [ …] strip away many beneficial nutrients such as fibre, vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals" (Hoffman n.d.). "Nutrients" is the more general category (hypernym) and "fibre", "vitamins", "minerals" and "phytochemicals" are the more specific hyponyms.
hypothesis: noun COUNTABLE an idea which is open to testing and which can be refuted through demonstration or experiment

hypothesis

null
working
specific
alternative
original
correct
interesting
reasonable
simple
testable
identifier: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a member of the subclass of determiners used with nouns and which limit the reference of the nouns in some way : There are three types of identifiers: articles (a and the), possessives (my, you his ...), and demonstratives (this, that, these, those)
identify: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to find, locate in whatever the task description asks you to locate and comment on it. Your opinions should be supported by evidence and/or reasoned argument. : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. "Identify" is usually followed by a further instruction word (e.g Identify and explain .. ). See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
idiom: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH a fixed phrase in which normal rules of grammar may be broken and whose meaning may not be obvious from the words themselves : Idioms are rarely used in academic or technical writing. If English is not your native language you should be wary of using idiomatic forms in your text as they may sound odd.
idiomatic: adjective describing language which is accepted as current usage, and is grammatically acceptable
idiomatic: adjective describing words or phrases which consist of or contain an idiom
illustrate: verb INSTRUCTION WORD use evidence, examples, analogies or (where appropriate) graphics to support and clarify something mentioned in the task description : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions
indefinite pronoun: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR an indefinite pronoun substitutes for a noun and indicates an indefinite quantity of the 'thing' or 'people' to which it refers, or something which the writer doesn't wish to specify more precisely : indefinite pronouns include few, many, all, some, everything, anything, nothing, something, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, any, nobody, no one, none, nothing.

"Everyone was then tested to see if they could remember what they had typed" (Noreen 2015).

"In the morning, think of something you are looking forward to that day and let the Sun or bright lights into your room to let your brain know it is time to be alert" (McMakin 2021).
indent: noun COUNTABLE a short space at the beginning of a line or section of text : Indents are used to indicate the beginning of a new paragraph and block quotations.
independent clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a clause which contains a finite verb, can stand alone, and is not part of a larger structure. Independent clauses can be simple (only one clause), complex (an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses, or compound (coordinated dependent clauses). : Simple: "Pizza is one of the world’s most popular foods". Complex: "When glutamate hits our tongues, it tells our brains to get excited". Compound: "Cheese is fatty, meat toppings tend to be rich, and the sauce is sweet". (Miller n.d.)
index: noun COUNTABLE a list of items contained in a text ordered alphabetically for ease of reference
indirect object: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR an indirect object is the "thing" which is indirectly affected by a ditransitive verb. It may be a noun, noun phrase, nominal clause or a pronoun : See also direct object
inference: noun COUNTABLE a process of logical reasoning from assumed facts or opinions such we can be reasonably sure, but not certain, that the conclusion is true : Verb: infer. Inference includes deduction.
infinitive clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR infinitive clauses are non-finite to-clauses. The infinitive verb is normally preceded by the marker "to". They are used in a variety of ways; as subject, subject predicative, extraposed subject, direct object, object predicative, as a noun phrase modifier, as a complement clause, and as part of an adjective phrase. : Direct object: "we need to worry about what’s happening on the largest island in the world" (Bamber n.d.). Subject predicative: "One way around this problem is to see how the ice sheet responded to changes in climate in the past" (Bamber n.d.). Adverbial: "To understand how film might degrade over long periods of time, scientists perform experiments on film at high temperatures and relative humidity" (Ahmad n.d.). Extraposed subject: "It would be easy to assume evolution works by continuously adding features to organisms." (Guijarro-Clarke and Paps n.d.) .
infinitive participle (infinitive marker): noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR the word "to" used to introduce the infinitive form of lexical verbs : Examples: "I just called to say I love you" (Wonder 1984). It is also used in the complex infinitive markers "in order to" and "so as to", introducing adverbial clauses of purpose, and in phrases such as "have to", "used to" and "ought to". "We have to concentrate in order to learn how to read music, and we have to try and memorise which piano key plays which note" (Power 2021).
inflection: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a suffix added to a lexical word to indicate particular meanings : Examples:

Nouns: "s" to signal a plural (car - cars); "'s" or "s'"to signal a genitive (friend's - friends');

Verbs: "s" to signal third person present indicative (give - gives); "d" or "ed" to signal regular past tense or past participle (listen - listened); "ing" to signal ing-participle (listen - listening);
Adjectives: "er" to signal comparative (sweet - sweeter); "est" to signal superlative (sweet - sweetest);
Adverbs: "er" to signal comparative (fast - faster); "est" to signal superlative (fast - fastest).
ing-clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a participle clause (present participle) often used as a post-modifying clause of a noun phrase and as complement clauses: See examples on the ing-clause page.
instruction word: noun COUNTABLE a verb used in the description of a writing task to define what is required in the task : Example verbs are analyse, discuss, evaluate, identify, outline, summarise. Also known as command verbs or task words. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
intensifier: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR intensifiers are adverbs which amplify (in fact they are sometimes called amplifiers) or increase the intensity of an adjective. Examples are: very, extremely, more, too, significantly, entirely, fully, highly, strongly. : Examples: "Those who had been told their work would be saved were significantly poorer at remembering the information" (Noreen n.d.). "..psychological research suggests that memories occurring below the age of three are highly unusual – and indeed, highly improbable" (Justice, Conway, and Akhtar n.d.). "But we are increasingly learning that this model is far too simplistic" (Milks n.d.).
intensive verb: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a verb which takes a single complement. This complement functions as a predicative - it provides information about the subject. The most common intensive verbs are copulas such as the verb "to be". : Example: "The relationship between science and truth is complicated" (Parke 2022).
interrogative pronoun: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a pronoun which substitutes for nouns, adjectives and adverbs in questions : interrogative pronouns include who, what, which, how, when, where, and why

"What happens next?"

"How do fish sleep?"

"Who invented video games?"
intransitive: adjective GRAMMAR this refers to verbs which do not take an object or a predicative complement
introduction: noun a paragraph at the beginning of a piece of writing which gives the main idea of the work : See more about introductions on the essay planning page.
introduction: noun a section at the beginning of a book or other lengthy piece of writing providing the main idea for the work, background information and other essential details helpful to the reader :
irony: noun UNCOUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH the use of words which imply the opposite of what is meant : Rare in academic writing.
irregular verb: noun phrase COUNTABLE verbs which do not form their past tense or the past participle in a regular way (by adding -ed to the base form of the verb) : Unfortunately for learners of English many common lexical verbs and all primary verbs (be, have, do) are irregular. You can consult list of irregular verbs here.
italics: noun slanting typeface used to separate a piece of text from its surroundings for emphasis or to distinguish it for some other purpose (usually contrast)
it-cleft: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a means of bringing information into quick focus in a sentence by using the word "It" + a form of the verb "be" + the element to be brought into focus + a dependent clause (usually a relative clause) : For example: "It was a logical next step that he took tools from molecular biology, garnered from his expertise in medical science, to better understand human prehistory" (Götherström and Dalén n.d.). See also wh-cleft.
iteration: noun COUNTABLE the process of repeating something a number of times
iterative: adjective describing something which is repeated a number of times

iterative

process
method
procedure
development
solution
approach
design
scheme
refinement
improvement
jargon: noun UNCOUNTABLE specialised words or phrases used by a particular group (scientists, tradespeople, professional groups etc. ) which may be difficult for those outside of that group to understand
journal: noun COUNTABLE a specialised periodical for those involved in a particular discipline to publish their work
justify: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to give reasons and/or evidence why something specified in a task description should be considered acceptable : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
lexeme: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a grouping of words which have the same root, the same central meaning, and which would be described under one heading in a dictionary. The group may contain only one word. : All the inflected forms of a verb (e,g, go, goes, went, gone, going) are considered to be one lexeme. Also idioms and compound nouns are considered to be individual lexemes as they have one core meaning.
lexical cohesion: noun phrase LEXIS cohesion in text created by reiteration (repetition) of words or phrases. This repetition might be of the same words, synonyms, superordinate terms or general (shell) nouns. : See: anaphoric nouns and lexical chains.
lexical field: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR See lexical set.
lexical set: noun COUNTABLE COHESION a grouping of words which have similar or related meanings arranged to show the similarities and differences between the various words in the set : Also known as lexical fields, semantic fields or semantic domains. See also the lexical chains page.
lexical verb: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR Lexical verbs only have a main verb function. This is by far the largest class of verbs. Also known as a full verb. : In the following sentence all the highlighted words are lexical words: "So if you want to study effectively with music, you want to reduce how distracting music can be, and increase the level to which the music keeps you in a good mood" (Byron n.d.). The verb be is a primary verb and can is a modal verb.
lexical word: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR lexical words are the main components of any text. They are what gives a text its meaning. They are open class words and the main classes are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Compare with function words.
lexis: noun the whole set of words used in any particular language
linking words: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a general term for words and phrases which make connections between phrases, clauses, sentences and paragraphs : There are many types of linking words. They include coordinators, subordinators, relativizers, adverbials, pronouns, and shell nouns.
literature: noun UNCOUNTABLE texts which deal with a particular discipline
literature review: noun a survey of the pertinent writings in a particular discipline often conducted as a part of a dissertation or thesis
logical fallacy: noun phrase an argument which is based on unsound reasoning and can be proved to be false : There and many types of logical fallacies and you can see a list of common fallacies here.
main clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a clause which can stand alone as a separate sentence, unlike a dependent clause which only has sense when attached to a main clause. : Example: "Foods turn brown and crispy when we cook them because of two chemical reactions" (Miller n.d.).. Foods turn brown and crispy when we cook them is the main clause and can stand alone as a sentence. because of two chemical reactions is a (non-finite) dependent clause and cannot stand alone as a sentence. It "depends" on the main clause, in this case providing a reason.
manual: noun COUNTABLE a text which provides instruction on the use of a machine or system
manuscript: noun COUNTABLE the original written work submitted for examination or publication
margin: noun COUNTABLE the space between the edge of the page and the text : If you have been given formatting guidelines make sue that you abide by them. If not, use standard formatting rules (e.g. 1 inch margins as stipulated by ASA style)
mass noun: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR nouns which are not countable. These nouns do not usually have a plural form and do not normally follow an indefinite article : Examples: advice, clothing, feedback, help, luck, poetry, steam, weather. Many nouns may be both mass nouns and countable nouns depending on the context: belief, cheese, wine.
mechanics: noun UNCOUNTABLE conventions regarding formatting including punctuation, capitalisation, spelling, and referencing style : This is something to check at a later stage once the main drafting and revising has been completed.
meronymy: noun UNCOUNTABLE SENSE RELATION the relationship between a part and the whole : A room is part of a building. So room is a meronym of building.
metalanguage: noun the words and phrases used to describe features of text
metaphor: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH the use of the name of one concept to describe another : Whereas a simile describes a concept as being like another, a metaphor describes a concept in terms of another. Many commonly used metaphors are almost clichés. For example: "get into hot water”, "split hairs”, "food for thought”.
metonymy: noun UNCOUNTABLE SENSE RELATION the use of a word (usually a simple one) to represent a a larger concept. : For example the use of the word "tongue" to mean "language". Metonymy is not the same as meronymy.
modal verb: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR There are nine central modal verbs: can, could, will, would, may, must, shall, should, might. They are used to express 'mood' such as permission, possibility, obligation, doubt, ability, advisability and necessity. : Possibility: "Music can put us in a better mood". Doubt: "You may have heard of the Mozart effect". Advisability: "Should you concentrate on eating less meat?" Ability (or lack of): "In another survey of 6000 people, the same study found that 71% of people could not remember their children’s phone numbers and 57% could not remember their work phone number" (Noreen n.d.). Modals are also useful in hedging and expressing stance.
modification: noun UNCOUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word or phrase which gives further information about another word or phrase and placed either before the head or after the head: Modification may be used in various phrases including noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases See the Introduction to Noun Phrases page.
modifier: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word, phrase or clause which give more information about another word or phrase. Modifiers placed before the headword are premodifiers. Those placed after the headword are postmodifiers (sometimes called qualifiers). : Modifiers are used mainly in noun phrases, adjective phrases, and adverb phrases.
monotransitive verb: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a verb which takes only a direct object realised by a noun phrase: Example: William Shakespeare wrote plays in the 1600s that are still read today. "William Shakespeare" is the subject,wrote is the monotransitive verb, and "plays" is the direct object. See also ditransitive and complex transitive.
mood: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR mood is an indicator of the attitude of the speaker or the subject of a clause. Various meanings indicated by mood are created by the use of different modals such as duty, obligation, or advisability with "should", possibility with "can", speculation with "may" or "must have" and so on. Another use of the word "mood" relates to sentences or clauses. - whether they are declarative, interrogative or imperative. : Examples: Possibility - "Music can put us in a better mood" (Byron n.d.). Speculation - "Historical films may be decaying much faster than we thought thanks to ‘vinegar syndrome’" (Ahmad n.d.). Recommendation - "A good start is ensuring that the temperature and ventilation in your bedroom is good – it should be cool and airy" (Sahakian et al. n.d.) .
morpheme: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR the smallest part of a word which has meaning : A word may consist of just one morpheme (e.g. "say", "cut", "free", "it"). But most words consist of more than one (e.g. "rewrite", "fairness", "studied"). "Rewrite" contains a derivational prefix ("re" meaning "again"); "fairness" contains a derivational suffix ("ness" creating a noun from an adjective); "studied" contains a inflectional suffix ("ed" creating the past tense of a verb).
morphology: noun UNCOUNTABLE GRAMMAR the study of the structure of words : Most function words (the, at, which ...) consist of just one morpheme. Although many lexical words consist of only one morpheme, most are more complex. This complexity derives from compounding (particularly to make compound nouns), inflection, and derivation.
neologism: noun COUNTABLE a newly invented word or a new meaning given to an old word, which has come into accepted use
nominal: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a noun, noun phrase or any word or phrase which is used as a noun such as adjectives and complement clauses
non-finite clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a clause which contains a non-finite verb (one which has no subject and which does not show tense) and which cannot stand as an independent clause : See also finite clause.
non-finite verb: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a verb form which does not show tense and does not show a relationship with a subject in person and/or number : In the phrase "...if you want to study effectively .." to study is non-finite and want is finite. See also finite verb.
noun: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word which refers to a "thing”; this "thing” could be an object, a person, a process, a concept, an event
noun phrase: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a noun phrase consists of a head (a noun, an indefinite pronoun or demonstrative pronoun) and optionally pre-modification (e.g. adjectives) and/or post-modification
object: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR an object is the "thing" which is affected by a transitive verb. It may be a noun, noun phrase, noun clause or a pronoun : an object may be direct or indirect. See also subject
object complement: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR an object complement (or object predicative) is the complement which is linked to the object in a sentence. It is usually a noun phrase or an adjective phrase. : In the sentence "Some kinds of light make you more alert and more awake.", "you" is the object, and "more alert and more awake" is the object complement (an adjective phrase).
object predicative: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR an object predicative complements an object and occurs with complex transitive verbs. It may be a noun phrase or an adjective phrase. An object predicative has the same reference as the object (the object and the object predicative refer to the same thing) and is usually found immediately after the direct object. :
Examples:
([verb] object object predicative)

"If a plant is being eaten by insects, it can produce a set of chemicals to [make] its leaves less tasty" (Ashton 2022).

"Which means anyone who uses the scientific method can and should [consider] themselves a scientist" (Lorch 2023).

With some verbs (e.g. consider, treat, regard) the object predicative may be preceded by "as":
We are so used to [considering] insects [as] pests that it is tempting to think that, in a world with fewer of them, agriculture might prosper as never before " (Reynolds 2023).

See also subject predicative.
objective: adjective based on established facts, strong evidence and widely accepted premise rather than personal opinions or points of view : Noun: objectivity. Compare with subjective.

objective

reality
criteria
truth
evidence
analysis
data
information
assessment
knowledge
measures
open class word: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR words which belong to open classes such as noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. New words can be, and often are, admitted to these classes. By contrast closed class words belong to closed classes to which new words are not added. : Open class words are also known as content words.
operator: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR the first auxiliary verb in a verb phrase : In the sentence "She has not been seen since”, "has” is the operator in the verb phrase "has not been seen”.
ordinal number: noun a number used for placing items in order : Seventh day of the week. See also cardinal number.
organisation pattern: noun COUNTABLE text structures commonly used in expository writing : Also known as patterns of organisation or text structures. Examples include: enumeration, sequence, compare and contrast, cause and effect, problem and solution, advantages and disadvantages, classification.
outline: noun COUNTABLE a concise description of the main points of an event, plan, process, design, etc. : An outline of an essay or report provides the main points and main supporting details to be discussed in the text.

outline

brief
broad
general
basic
vague
rough
bare
clear
historical
outline: verb to describe the main points of an event, plan, process, design, etc.
outline: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to describe the main points about an argument, topic, proposition, etc. : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
pagination: noun UNCOUNTABLE the way in which a text is organised into pages
paradigmatic relationship: noun phrase LEXIS relationships between words or groups of words in terms of how we classify them into hierarchies (subordinate and superordinate), sense relations and lexical sets. See also syntagmatic relationships.
paradox: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH a statement which seems to be contradictory but which may be insightful
paragraph: noun COUNTABLE a unit of text which usually contains one main idea. : A paragraph may be as short as one sentence but it is usually longer, containing a topic sentence and other sentences which provide supporting detail or evidence. A paragraph always begins on a new line and the first word may be indented.

paragraph

previous
new
final
preceding
following
short
introductory
single
concluding
brief
parallelism: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH repetition or mirroring of a style or structure
paraphrase: noun COUNTABLE text rewritten in different words in order to simplify or summarise the original text See more about paraphrasing the paraphrasing page.
paraphrase: verb to rewrite text in different words in order to simplify or summarise the original text
parataxis: noun UNCOUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH words, phrases, clauses or sentences of a similar type and value which are set next to one another, sometimes connected by coordinating conjunctions such as "and" and sometimes by commas or semi-colons : Adjective: paratactical. Often used in academic texts (separated by commas or semicolons) where lists are commonly found. Example: "Well, what sorts of animals do you typically imagine when you think about apex predators? Great white sharks, polar bears, killer whales, crocodiles, African lions, anacondas … perhaps a wedge-tailed eagle?" (Ritchie 2022)
parentheses: noun punctuation marks ( ) used to enclose and separate a short portion of text : Also known as brackets in British English; See the Parentheses Page
parentheticals: noun COUNTABLE parentheticals are words, phrases or clauses which give extra information but which are not part of the flow of the main clause. They are marked by commas, dashes, or parentheses : parentheticals may be simple noun phrases, noun phrases in apposition, or stance adverbials : "In the Book of Genesis, Jubal – a descendant of Adam – is identified as the father of the harp and flute." (Dallman n.d.)
parody: noun comic imitation achieved through exaggeration
parse: verb to break down a sentence into its separate grammatical categories
participle: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a non-finite verb form used as an adjective and also to form the perfect and progressive aspect and the passive voice : The present participle (-ing participle) is formed by adding -ing to the verb root (challenging task, distracting noise). The past participle (-ed participle) is formed by adding -ed to the verb root, except in the case of irregular verbs (selected text, broken window).
participle clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a clause introduce by a particle (present or past). They may function as the subject or object of a sentence and in postmodification of a noun phrase : See See ed-clauses, ing-clauses, and examples on the ed-clause page and the ing-clause page.
particle shift: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a particle in a phrasal verb (e.g. get up, carry out, go on) may move to a position after the direct object noun phrase. This is known as a particle shift. : Examples: "[Play-based learning] can also set your child up for success in the 21st century by teaching them relevant skills" (Morrissey, Rouse, and Robertson 2018). The phrasal verb is set up and the particle up has been shifted; it could be written as "[Play-based learning] can also set up your child for success...". If the direct object is a pronoun then a particle shift must be used: "Teaching kids about maths using money can set them up for financial security" (Attard 2017).
passive: adjective GRAMMAR describes a verb when the subject of the sentence is the sufferer of the action rather than the performer : In the sentence, "The dog is being washed by the boy.”, "The dog” is the subject and suffers the action. "is being washed” is a verb in the passive voice. Compare with the active
peer review: noun a review of a text (usually a draft at an advanced stage of preparation) undertaken by people in your peer group : For professionals this means people of similar or higher standing in your discipline; for students it means fellow students in your area of study.
perfect: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR an aspect which shows a connection between the past and the present, or between the past and a later time in the past. It is constructed with the auxiliary verb have and the past participle : Present perfect: "Rather than worrying about what we have lost, perhaps we need to focus on what we have gained"(Noreen). (The loss and the gain happened in the past but they remain a loss or a gain in the present). Past perfect: "A few centuries later, there had been a lot of progress." (Dorrian and Whittaker 2020). (Here the connection is between two things in the past, one later than the other).
period: noun COUNTABLE AMERICAN USAGE the closing dot at the end of a sentence, also known as a full stop
periodical: noun COUNTABLE a publication which is issued at regular intervals (weekly, monthly, quarterly)
personal pronoun: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word which refers to people or things (usually anaphorically) : I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they, them.
"it" is generally used for personal reference while "they" and "them" may be used for both personal and non-personal reference.

"He looked up at me sheepishly" (Sekeres 2022).

"They also help us recognise familiar faces" (Phelps and Moro 2021).
persuasive: adjective making you believe something to be true : It was a compelling and persuasive argument for the urgency of ratifying the treaty. Compare with expository

persuasive

evidence
essay
argument
power
writing
speech
case
communication
manner
techniques
phonology: noun UNCOUNTABLE the study of the sounds of a language
phrasal verb: noun phrase GRAMMAR a multi-word lexical verb consisting of a verb + adverbial particle. They may be transitive or intransitive. : Examples: come on, get up, find out, go on, carry out, point out . There are hundreds of these in English and many of them have somewhat idiomatic meanings which are difficult to guess from their individual words. They are less used in academic texts than in conversation.
phrase: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a phrase is a group of words below the level of a clause. There are 5 types of phrase in English: the noun phrase, the verb phrase, the adverb phrase, the adjective phrase and the prepositional phrase. See also clause
plagiarism: noun UNCOUNTABLE taking other people's work and using it as if it were your own without acknowledging the source of this work : See more about plagiarism and how to avoid it.
polysemy: noun UNCOUNTABLE SENSE RELATION the characteristic of words having more than one meaning. Many words are polysemous. : Light is (as a noun) a) the brightness that is part of the electromagnetic spectrum; b) a device for producing light; c) a flame; (as an adjective) a) not dark; b) not heavy; (as a verb) to set fire to; to make bright; etc.
possessive: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a subclass of identifier a member of which limits the reference to an antecedent in some way. They alway precede a noun : The possessives are my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
possessive pronoun: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR the pronouns indicate belonging. What is belonged is recoverable from (usually) preceding context : The possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.

"Just the way airport workers who signal to pilots wear specialized earmuffs while they are on the tarmac to protect their hearing from damage caused by noisy jet planes, musicians and concertgoers can wear earplugs. I carry mine – which can cut out up to 21 decibels of noise – everywhere, attached to my keychain" (Stucky 2022). [my earplugs]

"Elephants have bigger brains, but their bodies are even bigger than ours" (Simons 2021). [our brains]
postdeterminer: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR determiners which are placed after the any central determiner (the, these, her, their etc.). They are cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, quantifying determiners and semi-determiners : Examples: the two experiments, the first place, a few studies, the next time.
postmodification: noun UNCOUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word or phrase which gives further information about another word or phrase and placed after the head : Postmodification may be used in various phrases including noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases See the noun postmodification page
predeterminer: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a small group of determiners containing the words both, all and half, plus multipliers and fractions like double, once, twice, one third of : They are called predeterminers because they are often placed before determiners as in "all the lonely people" (all is a predeterminer and the is a determiner).
predicate: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a predicate is the part of the sentence which says something about the subject. It usually consists of a verb and any complements (objects, predicatives, or adverbials).
predicative: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a predicative is the part of a sentence which normally follows a copula and provide information about the subject, or occasionally the object. : See also subject predicative and object predicative. It is also used as a noun. See predicative adjective.
predicative adjective: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR an adjective which is used after a verb : Most adjectives can be used both attributively (before a noun) and predicatively (after a verb). See also attributive adjective.
preface: noun COUNTABLE an introduction to a long text (usually a book) outlining the purpose and scope of the contents
prefix: noun COUNTABLE a group of letters placed at the beginning of a word which changes the meaning or form of that word : Derivational prefixes are used to form new nouns and new verbs. See a list of prefixes and their meanings on the prefix page. See also suffix.
preliminary: adjective describing something which is in the early stages of preparation :

preliminary

results
report
examination
draft
study
data
analysis
findings
work
investigation
premise: noun COUNTABLE a presupposed idea or statement (which may or may not be true) upon which an argument is based : A premise is the foundation upon which a reasoned argument is based. As readers we tend to accept a premise as a given but as critical readers we need to examine premises very carefully - the foundations may be shaky. As writers we should make sure our premises can withstand critical scrutiny.
premodification: noun UNCOUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word or phrase which gives further information about another word or phrase and placed before the head : Premodification may be used in various phrases including noun phrases, verb phrases, adjective phrases See the noun premodification page
preposition: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word used to link nouns, pronouns and gerunds to other words or phrases. A preposition and its complement is a prepositional phrase : Prepositions are used to show various meanings, such as place: "Having rounded the southern tip of Africa, and following a westerly course, the sailors observed the Sun as being on their right hand side, above the northern horizon" (Dorrian and Whittaker 2020), and time: at night, in the middle of the night, in the last decade or two, during the day.
prepositional object: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR objects consisting of a noun phrase or nominal clause normally placed after a prepositional verb (deal with, look at, depend on, consist of, contribute to, lead to, come from, etc.) :

"We know wood comes from trees" (Nolan 2019).

"Studies also show that chronic exposure to noise can affect your sleep and hearing and contribute to health problems like heart disease " (Walker 2022).
prepositional phrase: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a phrase consisting of a preposition and a complement (usually a noun phrase), often used as a post-modifier of a noun phrase : See examples on the prepositional phrase page
prepositional verb: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR verbs which take a prepositional object . The prepositional verb may be immediately followed by a preposition, or in some cases the verb and preposition may be separated by a noun phrase :

"I remember the first time I looked at Saturn through a telescope" (Rogerson 2021).

"Let’s use eye colour as an example" (Abbatangelo 2023).

In passive constructions what was the object in the active is moved to a subject position. (This is common in academic texts.):

"Additionally, many modern stories are based on older stories." (Gruner 2019).
Active: Writers base many modern stories on older stories.

"We also know that intense emotions are associated with stronger memories and preferences" (McAndrew 2019).
Active: We also know that we associate intense emotions with stronger memories and preferences.

With a prepositional verb, the preposition belongs more to the verb than the noun; the verb and the preposition form one lexical entity, and a change in the preposition would change the whole meaning of the verb + preposition or render it meaningless.
See also the subject-verb-prepositional object pattern.
preprint: noun COUNTABLE a preliminary version of a research paper intended for publication, put into circulation, but which has not yet been submitted for peer review : Most preprints are given a DOI, which establishes the ownership of the work and enables the work to be cited.
primary source: noun phrase GRAMMAR a source of information which was an original creation (e.g. a research paper, historical manuscript, or original artifact) See information on primary and secondary sources on the research page
primary verb: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR There are three primary verbs: be, have, and do. They function both as main verbs (like lexical verbs) and auxiliary verbs. : The following three sentences are all examples of the use of primary verbs as main verbs: "Pizza is one of the world’s most popular foods". "Pizza has all of these components". "Pääbo did his PhD in medical science at Uppsala University in Sweden". The following sentence is an example of the use of a primary verb as an auxiliary verb "Today most people do not get enough sleep".
problem/solution: noun an organisation pattern usually at least a paragraph long which examines possible solutions to a particular problem : See how problem/solution is used in a real text on the problem-solution page.
proceedings: noun articles, reviews or reports of discussions, conferences, experiments, surveys … conducted by a professional body
process: noun COUNTABLE a series of steps taken in a given order in order to achieve a particular outcome : Students are sometimes asked to describe a process either to evaluate their understanding of a particular process or to test their ability to write a description involving enumeration. Writing itself is a complex process.

process

continuous
complex
educational
slow
evolutionary
historical
creative
gradual
simple
lengthy
pro-form: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR function words or phrases which (like pronouns) are used to avoid repetition in a sentence or previous part of a text. "So" replaces clauses or verb complements. "Do" and "do so" are pro-predicates : Examples: "Most people know that Mount Everest is the tallest mountain but I want to know for how long it has been the tallest, and for how long in the future it will remain so" (Power 2021). "Scientists have yet to effectively demonstrate controllable nuclear fusion that produces more energy than it consumes, but they are working hard to do so" (Wu 2021).
progressive aspect: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a grammatical category which indicates that the action is, was, or will be in progress, developing or not complete (also known as continuous) : Present progressive (continuous): Do you listen to music while you’re studying? Past progressive (continuous): "..deep down at the bottom of the ocean, something was beginning to happen …"
pronoun: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word which takes the place of a noun which has previously been mentioned in a text or which stands for something general or unknown : Pronouns (e.g. he, she, they, I, theirs, who, anyone ….) are important for avoiding repetition in a text and for creating cohesion. Pronouns are classified thus:

Personal pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns

Reflexive pronouns

Reciprocal pronouns

Possessive pronouns

Indefinite pronouns

Relative pronouns

Interrogative pronouns
proofreading: noun the act of reviewing a document carefully in order to locate and correct errors
proposal: noun COUNTABLE a written request, containing a detailed plan, to proceed with a research project

proposal

detailed
specific
revised
alternative
formal
serious
amended
interesting
simple
written
proposition: noun COUNTABLE an opinion, an idea, a suggestion, or a thesis which you intend to defend with evidence, argument and examples in your writing
prose: noun the normal form of language (written or spoken) used from day to day
provenance: noun UNCOUNTABLE where something comes from, origin, source : Provenance is mainly concerned with the chronology of ownership in oder to establish authenticity. In the case of information sources is it also concerned with authority and reliability
publication: noun COUNTABLE writing which is made available to the general public
publish: verb to make a piece of writing (report, journal article, book ...) available to the general public
punctuation: noun UNCOUNTABLE marks which divide phrases, clauses and sentences and provide information about the particular status of a portion of a text (e.g. that it is a question or a quotation) : See the Punctuation Page
quantifier: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a type of determiner indicating indefinite quantity : quantifiers include few, many, several, some, a lot of.
question mark: noun COUNTABLE PUNCTUATION a punctuation mark: (?) placed at the end of a sentence to denote that a question is being asked : See the Question Mark Page
questionnaire: noun a carefully constructed list of questions written in order to gather information in a systematic and reliable way from a selected group of interviewees
quotation: noun COUNTABLE the actual words written or spoken and reported in a text - a quotation is enclosed in quotation marks (parentheses) and should be normally be accompanied by a citation : See how quotations are formatted on the citation page.
quotation marks: noun PUNCTUATION punctuation marks (" ") which enclose a quotation to show that these words were written by someone other than the author of the text (although an author may also quote his or her previous work) : See the Quotation Mark Page
quote: noun COUNTABLE the actual words written or spoken and reported in a text - a quote is enclosed in quotation marks (parentheses) and should be normally be accompanied by a citation : See how quotes are formatted on the citation page.
rebuttal: noun COUNTABLE a form of counter-argument. A rebuttal does not necessarily provide evidence and reasoning to disprove an argument. It is merely a statement that you don't accept the argument and is therefore an inferior form of refutation.

rebuttal

detailed
convincing
effective
direct
good
strong
devastating
lengthy
excellent
brief
reciprocal pronoun: noun phrase COUNTABLE GRAMMAR pronouns which refer to more than one referent and which indicate a mutual relationship between them. There are only two reciprocal pronouns: "each other" and "one another".
"each other" usually indicates reciprocity between two entities , whereas "one another" implies reciprocity among many :

"One of the things that make up the atom is called an “electron”. Electrons have many jobs. Some electrons help the atoms hold onto each other" (Abbas 2019).

"The internet is a global collection of computers that know how to send messages to one another. " (Martin 2023).
redundant: adjective describing a word or phrase which is unnecessary because it, or a word or phrase similar in meaning, has already been used : Noun: redundancy. Occasionally you may need to repeat a word or its synonym for emphasis or some other reason, but otherwise redundancy is best avoided. Redundancy is not the same as reiteration.
reference: noun COUNTABLE COHESION a pointer to an item located at another (usually previous) point in a text : Reference can be backward pointing (anaphoric reference), forward pointing (cataphoric reference), or pointing to something outside of the text (exophoric). See more about reference on the referencing page.
reference: noun CITATION a pointer to the source of information, normally formatted in a specific way in order that the reader may locate the source easily : See how to cite on the citation page.
referencing software: noun phrase software to help you keep track of your references during research, to format citations and to create a properly formatted bibliography : See examples of referencing software on the research page.
referencing style: noun phrase formatting rules for references, citations, and bibliographies according to particular styles such as APA, Chigaco, MLA or Harvard : This site uses APA. Always check which style your institution uses. People get very upset if you use the wrong style.
reflexive pronoun: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR pronouns which refer, or give emphasis, to the referent of a preceding noun phrase . They are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves : Reference: "The brain reorganises and recharges itself during sleep" (Sahakian et al. n.d.). Emphasis: "The brain itself is made up of both grey and white tissue" (Hodgetts n.d.).
refutation: noun COUNTABLE VERB: refute: a form of counter-argument. A refutation needs to provide evidence and reasoning to disprove an argument (proposition). : A counter-argument which does not provide evidence and reasoning does not disprove an argument and is merely a rebuttal, not a refutation.
register: noun COUNTABLE LEXIS the type of language (vocabulary, grammar, style) you are expected to use in a particular situation with particular people for a particular purpose : There are constraints over the particular words, grammar, and mode of address you may use with a particular audience in a particular situation. You don't use the same type of language when addressing a respected person or someone in authority as you do with your friends (however respected they may be). This applies both to speech and writing.
reiteration: noun COUNTABLE COHESION a form of lexical cohesion involving the repetition of word or phrase, or the use of a synonym or shell noun to refer back to something earlier in the text : See the lexical chains page.
relative clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a clause which provides information about a preceding noun and which cannot exist on its own : See examples on the Relative Clauses page.
relative pronoun: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR pronouns which substitute for nouns in relative clauses and act as the head of the relative clause. They are: who, which, that, whom, whose. Also known as a relativizers, they point back to the noun they modify : See examples on the Relative Clauses page.
relativizer: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a relative pronoun or relative adverb connecting a noun or noun phrase to a relative clause
report: noun COUNTABLE a written account of a study, piece of research, survey or experiment, including the methodology used, results obtained, and conclusions reached
reprint: noun COUNTABLE a publication which has been printed again, perhaps with corrections but with no revisions : Compare with edition, which may have updates and revisions.
research: noun COUNTABLE the process of finding information by conducting experiments, surveys, literature reviews or any other systematic means : See more about researching on the research page.

research

social
medical
scientific
substantive
historical
basic
current
educational
empirical
clinical
research paper: noun phrase a lengthy report giving details of research conducted
rhetoric: noun UNCOUNTABLE speech or writing intended to persuade
rhetorical question: noun phrase COUNTABLE a question which does not require an answer (the answer being obvious, and the question being asked merely to make a particular point, or to introduce an explanation or argument) See Rhetorical Questions
root: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR the minimal form of any word to which affixes or other words may be added to modify the meaning - also known as the base form : Examples: semi (prefix) + final (root) = semifinal; bath (root) + room (root) = bathroom.
rubric: noun COUNTABLE a tool used for assessment, setting expectation standards for a task, or for providing focused feedback to students on completion of a task : See more about rubrics .
run-on sentence: noun COUNTABLE a sentence where uncoordinated independent clauses are not properly separated by a semicolon : Original sentence: "After all, planetary orbits aren’t all the same; they’re randomly oriented." Run-on sentence: After all, planetary orbits aren’t all the same they’re randomly oriented." If we use a comma instead of a semicolon we have a 'comma fault': "After all, planetary orbits aren’t all the same, they’re randomly oriented." See The Semicolon
scan: verb to read though a text quickly looking for specific information
search engine: noun phrase COUNTABLE software used for locating specific information on the World Wide Web : See how to search in the research page.
search string: noun phrase the combination of search words and operators used in a search engine to help you find the resources you need : You can save a lot of time by learning how to use the right parameters in a search engine. See more in formation on the research page.
search term: noun phrase COUNTABLE the words (and possibly boolean symbols) used to conduct a search using a search engine : See how to search on the research page.
secondary source: noun phrase COUNTABLE a source of information which makes use of, refers to, or comments on other sources (primary or secondary) : See information on primary and secondary sources on the research page
semicolon: noun COUNTABLE PUNCTUATION a punctuation mark mainly used to separate independent clauses : See the Semicolon Page
semi-determiner: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a small class of words which act like determiners but whose main function is referential; specifically, anaphoric reference of a noun. See examples on the anaphoric nouns page : This group consists of: same, other, former, latter, last, next, certain, and such.
sense relation: noun phrase COUNTABLE the relationship between words due to various categories of meaning, rather than grammar : These include synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, polysemy, meronymy, converse, and gradable.
sentence: noun COUNTABLE a sentence is a group of words (containing clauses and phrases) beginning with a capital letter and ending in a full stop (period).
sentence fragment: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR non-clausal material consisting either of a single word or a group of words which does not form a clause : Sometimes found as an error in essays by inexperienced writers but sometimes used deliberately for effect. Not much used in academic writing but sometimes found in answers to semi-rhetorical questions: Is accurate referencing important? Obviously.
sequence: noun COUNTABLE a series of items one after another, usually ordered in a particular way (alphabetically, numerically, chronologically, etc.) : "[respiration] involves a remarkable sequence of processes that beautifully convey the wonder of these biological nanomachines.” (McFadden and Al-Khalili 2016) See how sequence (enumeration) is used in a text on the enumeration page.

sequence

logical
chronological
short
random
infinite
correct
particular
long
causal
alphabetical

sequence of

events
steps
operations
actions
numbers
images
activities
instructions
words
elements
shell noun: COUNTABLE Shell nouns are a special class of abstract nouns whose meaning is found in the surrounding text rather than within the word itself : See more about shell nouns on the Abstract Noun page.
signal phrase: noun phrase COUNTABLE a phrase used to introduce a quotation or a paraphrase : See more about signal phrases on the citation page.
simile: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH an expression used as a comparison using the words like or as : "Cheese and tomato sauce are like a perfect marriage" (Miller n.d.).. Compare with metaphor.
skim: verb to read quickly in order to get a general sense of the main ideas of a text
source: noun COUNTABLE where something came from or originated : Even stable molecules can, however, be ripped apart if they are provided with sufficient energy. One possible source of that energy is more heat, which speeds up molecular motion. (McFadden and Al-Khalili 2016 p71)
I wish to express my thanks also to all those authors and publishers whose works have been quoted. The sources of these quotations have been separately acknowledged in the Notes and Bibliography. (Hoggart, 2009). See also primary source and secondary source.

source

main
major
important
useful
valuable
possible
reliable
potential
primary
authoritative
source evauation: noun phrase sources of information need to be reliable and they need to suit your needs so you must evaluate them carefully before you use them : There are a few factors you need to consider when evaluating a source. read about them on the research page.
spacing: noun COUNTABLE the number of lines left between lines of text and the space which separates graphics from text : The normal requirement for most academic writing is double spacing (an extra empty line between each line of text), but you should consult your college or organisation for their formatting requirements.
stance: noun UNCOUNTABLE GRAMMAR Stance means the writer's opinion, approach, or position on a topic, including feelings, critiques or assessments. Stance may be expressed grammatically or lexically. Grammatically, stance is often expressed through adverbials or complement clauses. Lexically, it can be expressed through verbs (agree, disagree, doubt, disapprove, love …) or through adjectives (expressing approval, disapproval, admiration, disdain, scepticism, etc.). Stance is one aspect of hedging.
state: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to clearly write what is requested in the task description : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
stative verb: noun COUNTABLE a verb which denotes something which does not change over time : In academic texts stative verbs in the present tense are used to indicate things which are normally true. Here are some examples: "Pizza is one of the world’s most popular foods" (Miller n.d.) . "So, our personal memories contain different types of information" (Hodgetts n.d.). "Today, we know the size and distance to the moon accurately by a variety of means ..." (Dorrian and Whittaker 2020). "But our study provides evidence that chimpanzees possess similar working memory abilities to humans" (Völter n.d.). The verbs is, contain, know, provides are all stative. See also dynamic verbs.
stem: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR the part of a word to which an affix or another word may be added : The word usual is the stem of the word unusual, and unusual is the stem of unusually. The words bath and room are both stems of the compound noun bathroom.
style: noun COUNTABLE a mode of presentation either in terms of formatting or in terms of how language is used to communicate your ideas
style guide: noun phrase COUNTABLE a guide for writers outlining required or suggested conventions to be followed (in terms of formatting, language use, referencing, etc.) when writing for a particular journal or institution
style manual: noun phrase COUNTABLE a set of rules governing the style of academic writing including grammar, referencing, citations, bias-free language : Examples of style manuals are APA, Chigaco, MLA or Harvard.
subject: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a noun phrase (a person or a thing) or a nominal clause normally placed before a verb phrase and which acts as the performer of the verb : Subjects can be:

Nouns or noun phrases:

Bats sleep upside down.

All animals need to sleep.
Nominal clauses:

Why this happens is a bit of a mystery.

What octopuses eat depends on what species they are and where they live.
Pronouns:

It is there to protect you.

This is not an accident.

These pronouns refer to something which can only be recovered from the context - normally something previously mentioned in the text. Similarly, definite noun phrase referents can only be found elsewhere in the text:
This process is called nuclear fission.

A subject may also be a dummy, or empty subject:
It's cold today.

Note that in all the above cases the subject precedes the verb phrase. This is true for all sentences except interrogative clauses. In these cases the subject is placed after the operator:
Is chocolate delicious?

Where do they live?

The only exception to this rule is if the subject is a wh-word:
Who is paying for this?

See also object
subject: noun COUNTABLE an area of study in a school, college or university
subjective: adjective based on personal opinions or points of view rather than established facts : Compare with objective.
subject predicative: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a subject predicative complements a subject. It may be a noun phrase or an adjective phrase. A subject predicative has the same reference as the subject (the subject and the subject predicative refer to the same thing), or it provides information about the subject. Subject predicatives only follow copular verbs. They are sometimes referred to as subject complements :
Example 1
In the sentence "Pizza is one of the world’s most popular foods.", "Pizza" is the subject, "is" is the copula, and "one of the world’s most popular foods" is the subject predicative. "Pizza" and "one of the world’s most popular foods" have the same referent. They refer to the same thing.

Example 2
In the sentence "These wings then gradually became more powerful and covered in feathers and were eventually used to fly." (Wills 2020), "These wings" is the subject, "became" is the copula, and "more powerful and covered in feathers" is the subject predicative. "more powerful and covered in feathers" is an adjective phrase describing what eventually happened to the subject "These wings".
See also object predicative.
subject-verb agreement (concord): noun phrase GRAMMAR subject-verb agreement (or concord) refers to the fact that, apart from the verb to be, lexical verbs only change their form in the present tense when the subject is in the third person singular (he, she, it, or a third person noun phrase).
subject – verb (SV) pattern: noun phrase COUNTABLE CLAUSE PATTERN an SV (subject – verb phrase) clause contains a subject and an intransitive verb (also know as a one-place verb). There are not many purely intransitive verbs and even those which are intransitive may take an optional adverbial :

Examples (subject verb):

"As temperatures rise and sea ice disappears, emperors will face new challenges" (Younger 2019). (SV, no adverbial. Note that "emperors" refers to emperor penguins)

"In Australia, giant kangaroos and wombats disappeared 46,000 years ago" (Longrich 2020). (SV, plus adverbial - "46,000 years ago".)

"Until 1916 there had been many theories to try and explain what gravity was and why it exists" (Webb 2023). (SV, no adverbial.)

"Words exist because of meaning." (Davis 2023). (SV, plus adverbial - "because of meaning".)

Although the above examples show the structure with and without adverbials, most intransitive verbs are used with adverbials of one kind or another.
Common verbs used in this pattern are: appear, arrive, begin, continue, die, disappear, emerge, exist, fall, float, go, happen, laugh, listen, live, occur, rise, sit, sleep, smile, start, stop, think, vanish, wait.
See more examples on the subject – verb pattern page.
subject – verb – adverbial (SVA) pattern: noun phrase COUNTABLE CLAUSE PATTERN an SVA (subject – verb phrase – adverbial) clause contains a subject, an intransitive verb, and an obligatory adverbial. The adverbial is obligatory because without it either the sentence does not make sense, or the sentence has another (possibly implausible) meaning :

subject verb adverbial

"This means that one day on Earth lasts 24 hours" (Loon 2022). (Without the adverbial "24 hours", the sentence makes no sense.)

"When people sleep we close our eyes and lie motionless for a long time" (Brown 2019). (Without the adverbial "motionless for a long time", the sentence has a different, improbable, meaning.)

"We’re all different right? Some people look different. And some people think differently" (Simner 2021). (SVA x2: without the adverbials the sentences have a different meaning.)

See more examples on the subject – verb – adverbial pattern page.
subject – verb – complement clause(SV + CC) pattern: noun phrase COUNTABLE CLAUSE PATTERN an SV + CC (subject – verb – complement clause) clause contains a subject, a monotransitive verb, and a complement clause. The complement clause can be a that clause, a wh-clause, an infinitive clause, or an ing-clause. Sometimes the complement may be interpreted as the object in an (SVO_d) pattern. :

subject verb complement clause

SV + that-clause complement

"Scientists now know that it takes thousands of species to support human life" (Langen 2022).

"Scientists think that genes may play a role, but no one knows exactly how at this point" (Fabiano 2021).

"You have probably eaten some food that went bad, and you might find that you hate that food now" (Lemons, Kenney, and Lin 2020)

"Herodotus claimed that Africa was surrounded almost entirely by sea" (Dorrian and Whittaker 2020).

"Stephen Hawking famously warned that AI will eventually take over and replace mankind" (Fedrizzi and Malik 2022).

"Previous studies showed that chimpanzees have excellent short-term and long-term memory abilities" (Völter 2019).

"But Einstein suggested that gravity was the bending of something called space-time" (Webb 2023).

SV + wh-clause complement

"This explains why we can look similar to our parents" (Atkin-Smith and Poon 2020).

"But it takes a lot of energy for your brain to see what’s going on around you, based on the messages it gets from your eyes." (Nikolova 2019).

"To understand why this happens, let’s see what we can learn from other bodies in space" (Laycock 2023).

"You might wonder what a normal amount of sleep is or if you are getting enough sleep" (Krigolson 2023).

"Most parents can begin to tell which hand their kid prefers by around two years of age" (Barton and Todorovic 2021).

"To be able to start answering the question, we need to understand what mosquitoes are" (Oliver 2022).

SV + to-clause complement

"Any business can claim to be a news organization" (Watson 2023).

"But parents and caregivers should offer to talk with them to get a sense of what they know about the situation" (Scharrer and Martins 2022).

"This year conditions promise to be perfect, making it the ideal opportunity for some autumnal meteor observation" (Horner and Hill 2022).

"We often think about what young people can expect to gain from university, or what universities contribute to society" (Evans 2017).

"Young children often forget to carry out their intentions and this is not due to bad behaviour." (Mahy 2019).

"Drink plenty of water throughout the day. Put a jug of tap water in the fridge and remember to top it up" (Lopes, Power, and Crabtree 2020).

SV + ing-clause complement

"It takes years for apple tree saplings planted today to begin bearing saleable fruit" (Bohra and Varshney 2023).

"Since we don’t have the answers yet, we keep exploring and testing different theories " (Kuhn 2020).

"It took Europeans another 800 years to finally start making paper" (Law 2021).

"The only way to avoid making things worse is to stop setting carbon on fire"(Denning 2022).

"Do you remember going to the doctor and getting a needle in your arm?" (Koirala 2019).

"The authors argue that such projectile points were used for hunting large animals" (Marti-Cardona and Torres-Batlló 2021).

See also the subject – verb – object – complement clause (SVO + CC) pattern.
See more examples on the subject – verb – complement clause pattern page.
subject – verb – direct object (SVO_d) pattern: noun phrase COUNTABLE CLAUSE PATTERN an SVO_d (subject – verb phrase – direct object) clause contains a subject, an monotransitive verb, and a direct object. The direct object often describes the thing which is affected by the verb. :

subject verb direct object

"Plants need food to survive" (Ashton 2022).

"Our eyes don’t turn off in the dark, but instead they create very weak internal signals that mimic light" (Schmid 2021).

See more examples on the subject – verb – direct object pattern page.
subject – verb – direct object – adverbial (SVO_dA): noun phrase COUNTABLE CLAUSE PATTERN an SVO _dA (subject – verb – direct object – obligatory adverbial) clause contains a subject, a transitive verb, a direct object and an obligatory adverbial :

Usually the adverbial in these sentences is concerned with location and it cannot be removed (hence the obligatory) or moved elsewhere in the sentence - otherwise the sentence would be incomplete or not make sense.

subject verb direct object adverbial

"These receptor cells then send a signal to your brain" (Lemons, Kenney, and Lin 2020).

"Nasa is also planning new missions to take astronauts to the Moon" (Whittaker 2021).

"This is why we place telescopes on the tops of mountains; there’s less atmosphere above us!" (Rogerson 2021).

See more examples on the subject – verb – direct object – adverbial pattern page.
subject – verb – direct object – object predicative (SVO_dP_o): noun phrase COUNTABLE CLAUSE PATTERN a subject – verb phrase – direct object – object predicative (SVO _dP_o) clause contains a subject, a complex transitive verb, a direct object, and an object predicative :

The object predicative may be a noun phrase, an adjective phrase, or (rarely) a wh-clause.

subject verb direct object object predicative

"If a gas is not too hot, we can also call it vapour" (Bosi 2021).

"Physicists find this theory interesting, as it could explain why we haven’t found certain things that, scientifically, we would expect to see in our universe" (Smart 2022)

"It can also help to keep your study space tidy and remove any items that could distract you, like your mobile phone" (Munro 2020).

See more examples on the subject – verb – direct object object predicative pattern page.
subject – verb – direct object – prepositional object (SVO_d O_p): noun phrase COUNTABLE CLAUSE PATTERN an SVO_d P_o (subject – verb phrase – direct object – prepositional object) clause contains a subject, a ditransitive prepositional verb, a direct object and a prepositional object :

subject prepositional verb direct object prepositional object

"Scientists can drive these instruments to locations near the tornado, but stop at a safe distance" (Houser 2022).

"You can find octopuses at different depths too" (Spencer and Papastamatiou 2022).

See more examples on the subject – verb – direct object – prepositional object pattern page.
subject – verb – indirect object – direct object (SVO_i O_d) pattern: noun phrase COUNTABLE CLAUSE PATTERN an SVO_i O_d (subject – verb phrase – indirect object – direct object) clause contains a subject, a ditransitive verb, a indirect object and a direct object. The direct object is usually a noun but may be a pronoun or a nominal such as a wh-clause or a that-clause. :

subject ditransitive verb indirect object direct object

"A genetic mutation in Bengal tigers gives them their milky white fur" (Cushing 2020).

"So it is possible that the lack of technology made The Beatles better songwriters" (Noreen 2015).

"To be a good friend for our animals, we should give them the freedom to choose their own activities, and that will show us what they like" (Starling 2021).
(Two examples in this sentence. In the second one the direct object is a wh-clause.)

See more examples on the subject – verb – indirect object – direct object pattern page.
subject – verb – object – complement clause (SVO + CC) pattern: noun phrase COUNTABLE CLAUSE PATTERN an SVO + CC (subject – verb – noun phrase – complement clause) clause contains a subject, a monotransitive verb, a noun phrase and a complement clause. The complement clause can be a that clause, a wh-clause, an infinitive clause, or an ing-clause. :

subject verb object complement clause

SVO + that-clause complement

"Animals show us that there are many places to make a home" (Wishart 2020). (SVO_d + CC)

" In some states you are asked to notify the public health unit that you’ve tested positive" (Yates 2022). (SVO_d + CC)

SVO + wh-clause complement

"The mix of colors in beach sand tells you what kinds of rocks produced it" (Montgomery 2019). (SVO_i + CC)

"To be a good friend for our animals, we should give them the freedom to choose their own activities, and that will show us what they like" (Starling 2021). (SVO_i + CC)

SVO + to-clause complement

"For instance, one study asked participants to do either one task or two tasks at the same time" (Vasilev 2019). (SVO_d + CC)

"Urge your university to divest from fossil fuels, use renewable energy and commit to achieving net zero emissions – soon" (Mocatta and White 2020). (SVO_d + CC)

SVO + ing-clause complement

"We can see life evolving all around us" (Graves 2019).

"The next time you see an ant crawling up a wall, look closely and you might witness some of these fascinating features at work" (Cassill 2022). (SVO_d + CC)

See also the subject – verb – complement clause (SV + CC) pattern.
See more examples on the subject – verb – noun – phrase complement clause pattern page.
subject – verb – prepositional object (SVO_p) pattern: noun phrase COUNTABLE CLAUSE PATTERN an SVO_p (subject – verb phrase – prepositional object) clause contains a subject, a prepositional verb, and a prepositional object. With a prepositional verb, the preposition belongs more to the verb than the noun; the verb and the preposition form one lexical entity, and a change in the preposition would change the whole meaning of the verb + preposition or render it meaningless. :

subject prepositional verb prepositional object

"If we come across a new virus … our immune cells can’t recognise it straight away" (Quinn and Mehta 2020).
Many prepositional verbs can be replaced be a single lexical verb, as in this case: "come across" = "discover"

"One big scientific study looked at 168 different groups of people, from small communities that gather and hunt their own food, to bigger and busier cities" (Cushing 2020).

subject prepositional verb noun phrase prepositional object (the verb and its preposition are separated by a noun phrase)

"During the 2011 to 2012 financial year, London’s universities contributed a total of £5.8 billion to the city and supported 145,921 jobs (directly and indirectly) across all skill levels." (Addie 2017).

"The US plastic recycling industry has asked congress for a US$1 billion (£800 million) bailout [ … ] (Stringfellow, Williams, and Roberts 2020).

See more examples on the subject – verb – prepositional object pattern page.
subject – verb – subject predicative (SVP_s) pattern: noun phrase COUNTABLE CLAUSE PATTERN an SVP_s (subject – verb phrase – subject predicative) clause contains a subject, a copular verb, and a subject predicative. The subject predicative may describe the subject, describe a change in the subject, or identify or define the subject. :

subject verb subject predicative

Description of Subject

"The mimic octopus is particularly clever." (Spencer and Papastamatiou 2022). (subject predicative is an adjective phrase)

"The atmosphere was mostly nitrogen, carbon dioxide and no oxygen" (Jordan 2019). (subject predicative is a noun phrase)

Description of Change in Subject

"These wings then gradually became more powerful and covered in feathers and were eventually used to fly" (Wills 2020). (subject predicative is an adjective phrase)

"But as people used more and more paper, rags grew scarce" (Law 2021). (subject predicative is an adjective phrase)

Definition and Identification

"Gelotophobia is an intense fear of being laughed at" (Barker 2017). (Definition: subject predicative is a noun phrase)

"In the late 1700s, Englishman William Addis was the first to sell toothbrushes on a large scale." (Cotter 2019). (Identification: subject predicative is a noun phrase)

See more examples on the subject – verb – subject predicative pattern page.
subordinate: adjective being at a lower level, in a lower class, or of a lower status : Antonym: superordinate.
subordinator: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word which connects words, phrases and clauses. A subordinator links words, phrases and clauses which have a different syntactic status. Also known as subordinating conjunctions. Subordinators introduce dependent clauses : Examples: SUBORDINATORS: after, since, although, if, as than, that, whether, ....
substitution: noun COHESIVE DEVICE the replacement of one item with another : See more about substitution on the substitution page.
subtext: noun meanings or ideas which are not explicitly written in a text but which can be inferred from the choice a the writer's words : Academic text should be clear, formal, objective, and unbiased. Subtext has its place in advertising, opinion pieces, film and creative writing, but not in serious academic writing.
suffix: noun COUNTABLE a group of letters placed at the end of a word which changes the meaning or grammatical form of that word : Derivational suffixes are used to form new adjectives, nouns, and a few verbs. Inflectional suffixes are used to signal relationships which have a more grammatical meaning rather than a semantic one. See a list of suffixes on the suffixes page. See also prefix.
summarise: verb to write a reduced version of a text containing only the most essential points
summarise: verb INSTRUCTION WORD to give an account of the main points about whatever is mentioned a the task description : Used as an instruction word in a writing task description. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions.
summary: noun COUNTABLE a reduced version of a text containing only the most essential points

summary

brief
short
concise
detailed
excellent
quick
accurate
final
simple
general
superlative: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR the form of a word (adjective or adverb) used to the greatest or the least of some factor (quantity, quality, intensity ..) : Also known as the superlative degree. The superlative is formed with the suffix -est or with the word most. Most common gradable adjectives use -est; hot → hottest. Longer adjectives usually use most; beautiful → most beautiful. See also comparative.
superordinate: adjective being at a higher or more general level than something else : In vocabulary, a superordinate term is one which represents a group whose members are subordinate terms. The word "animal" is a superordinate term for many different subordinate members: lions, elephants, tardigrades, etc.
survey: noun COUNTABLE a systematic method of gathering and evaluating information
synonym: noun COUNTABLE SENSE RELATION a word which has the same meaning and use as another : True synonyms are rare because words with similar meanings are usually used in slightly different contexts and may have different collocations. See also antonym.
syntagmatic relationship: noun phrase LEXIS/GRAMMAR the syntactic relationship and collocational constraints a word has with others in a sentence : Words combine in restricted ways. For example, syntactically, nouns may be modified with an adjective or another noun, and different types of verbs occur in particular structures. Words are also constrained by the type of words with which they may collocate. We talk of strong, weak, hot ... tea, but not musical tea, even though it would be grammatically acceptable. All of these are syntagmatic relationships. See also paradigmatic relationships.
syntax: noun UNCOUNTABLE GRAMMAR the rules which govern how words combine to form sentences.
synthesis: noun COUNTABLE the combination of separate entities to form a new coherent unit
taboo words: noun COUNTABLE words whose use, because of social constraints based on profanity or religion, is considered unacceptable : Whether a word or phrase is considered taboo is culture based so you should bear this in mind this when you consider your audience. Taboo words or phrases are some avoided using euphemisms. Unless you are specifically writing about taboo words, consider not using them at all.
task word: noun COUNTABLE a verb used in the description of a writing task to define what is required in the task : Example verbs are analyse, discuss, evaluate, identify, outline, summarise. Also known as command verbs or instruction words. See the task analysis page for more information about understanding task instructions and the task verbs page for a dictionary of task verbs.
tautology: noun COUNTABLE FIGURE OF SPEECH using different words to say the same thing twice
tense: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a grammatical category concerning verbs which deals with the time an event takes place (past, present, or future) : See also aspect. Note that there is actually no future tense in English. Future tense can be expressed in a number of ways such as with the modal auxiliary "will" or the semi-modal "going to", but there is no future tense inflection in English.
text: noun COUNTABLE words written or spoken for a particular audience and a particular purpose : Anything containing words in which meaning can be found can be a text. A text can be any length, from a one word warning sign to a lengthy book.

text

literary
original
main
final
written
plain
introductory
authoritative
descriptive
that-clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a finite dependent clause consisting of the word "that" and a finite clause. It is used as a complement of adjective phrases, verb phrases, and noun phrases : Example: "But it is clear that something associated with education is having very different effects in the two countries" (Teal n.d.). This is an adjective, "clear", with a post-predicate that-clause.
theme: noun COUNTABLE the main idea of a text
theme: noun COUNTABLE the main focus of meaning in a sentence
theorise: noun to construct a coherent set of ideas, principles rules or conventions concerning a particular area of study which help in understanding and explaining it
theory: noun a coherent set of ideas, principles rules or conventions concerning a particular area of study which help in understanding and explaining it

theory

general
political
economic
classical
evolutionary
literary
quantum
game
traditional
thesaurus: noun a book which supplies lists of synonyms, antonyms and words with similar or related meaning : The most famous thesaurus, by Peter Mark Roget, was first published in 1852. It remains a useful reference source. You can view or download the original text of Roget's Thesaurus here.
thesis: noun COUNTABLE the topic of an essay or report, often including the writer’s opinion on the topic
thesis: noun COUNTABLE an extended piece of writing on a researched topic intended for discussion or presented for examination
thesis: noun COUNTABLE an idea or proposal put forward for discussion and defence
thesis statement: noun COUNTABLE a statement, of one or two sentences, giving information about the topic and perhaps the author's stance in the introduction to an essay or report : Read more about thesis statements.
title: noun COUNTABLE the name (often descriptive) of a piece of writing
to-clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a post-modifying to-infinitive clause providing extra information about a preceding noun phrase : See examples on the to-clause page
tone: noun UNCOUNTABLE the stance or emotional charge of the speaker or writer : In speaking, tone is signalled both by the quality of the speaker’s voice and the choice of words; in writing tone is carried only by writer’s choice of words and perhaps grammatical structures. In social media exchanges it may be signalled by the use of capital letters, exaggerated use of punctuation and the use of non lexical signs such as emojis. None of this has any place in academic communication, which should always be measured and straightforward.

tone

casual
neutral
positive
subdued
negative
cool
formal
natrual
disapproving
ironic
topic: noun COUNTABLE the subject matter of a paragraph, section, essay, report, etc.

topic

particular
main
new
important
major
specific
given
chosen
hot
topic sentence: noun phrase a sentence which provides the controlling idea (the subject matter) of a paragraph, section, or an entire piece of writing : You can see how a topic sentence is used on the main idea page.
transition: noun COUNTABLE a change from one topic to another : Transition adverbials (such as "now”, "meanwhile”, "incidentally”) are sometimes used to signal transition from one topic to another. See how transition is managed on the adverbials page.
transitive: adjective describing a clause in which the verb requires a direct object
typo: noun a typographical error
transitive verb: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a verb which requires an object. : "But our study provides evidence that chimpanzees possess similar working memory abilities to humans." (Völter n.d.). In this sentence both provides and possess are transitive verbs. See also ditransitive and complex transitive.
uncountable noun: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a noun which does not have a plural form : UNCOUNTABLE: shopping, happiness, peace, information, equipment, honesty.
unity: noun UNCOUNTABLE a sense of focus and coherence in a paragraph achieved when every sentence in the paragraph is related to the topic
unpublished: adjective describes a piece of writing which has not been made public : Many texts (reports, dissertations, theses ...) written for internal or examination or assessment purposes are not published.
usage: noun the way language is normally written or spoken by a particular community

usage

common
current
everyday
modern
normal
ordinary
popular
technical
scientific
verb: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a word used to describe actions, states or events - verb phrases are essential parts of almost all English clauses
valency: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR an indication of the number of grammatical items to which a a verb may connect :

a one-place verb connects only to a subject (therefore intransitive)

a two-place verb connects to a subject and another element (e.g. a direct object, therefore transitive)

a three-place verb connects to a subject and another two elements, (e.g. a direct object and an indirect object, therefore ditransitive)

Verbs may have more than one valency, depending on their use.
verb phrase: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR part of a sentence containing one lexical verb or primary verb as the head of the phrase and possibly as many as four auxiliary verbs, as well as the word not : A verb phrase may consist of just one lexical or primary verb: "Most foods contain at least some sugar". A verb phrase may also have one or more auxiliary verbs: "Historical films may be decaying much faster than we thought". may and be are auxiliary verbs in this sentence.
voice: noun UNCOUNTABLE GRAMMAR the relationship between a verb and any associated noun phrase, and the resulting emphasis caused by this. This usually means the distinction between the active voice and the passive voice : The passive voice is often used when the writer does not wish or is not able to name the agent. For example: "A lot of claims have been made about the benefits of tai chi." (Nyman n.d.). In this case it may not be possible or easy to name those who made the claims or there may be too many to name. So the passive voice is more convenient.
volume: noun COUNTABLE a set of issues of a journal
volume: noun COUNTABLE one book in a set
wh-clause: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a clause which begins with a wh-word (who, what, which, where, when, why, how, whether, whatever, whichever ) and acts either as a dependent interrogative clause or a nominal relative clause : Examples:
Dependent Interrogative Clauses

"How do you know whether your school is a “good” one?" (Riddle 2023)

"Have you ever wondered what it would be like to travel to outer space – and then keep going?" (Singal 2021)

Nominal Relative Clauses

"The trail of digital data you leave – both online and offline – is what makes you especially valuable." (Ashley 2019)

"The different colours blend into each other, and it is difficult to tell where one colour ends and another begins." (Rawlings 2022)

"What the equation seems to say is that energy equals mass times some number." (Baron 2021)
wh-cleft: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR a means of bringing information into quick focus in a sentence by using a clause containing the point of focus introduced by a "wh word " + a form of the verb "be" + the focused information (usually a phrase, an infinitive clause or a finite nominal clause) : For example: "What we have added was the discovery that AI can help find these heat-resilient corals" (Elagali et al. n.d.). See also it-cleft.
wh-word: noun COUNTABLE GRAMMAR wh-words include who, what, which, where, when, why, whose, how, whether, whatever, whichever, and that : Examples: wh-words act as:
Interrogative Clause Markers

What is spacetime?

Why does the Earth spin?

Where did life come from?
Relativizers

"This is the branch of physics which studies heat and energy" (Fitchett 2021).

Other apes who walked upright came later in the Stone Age.

Complementizers

"Nobody knows where human evolution will lead" (Simons 2021).

"News literacy involves understanding how news filters into the public domain" (Ashley 2019).

Adverbial Clause Links

"And whenever these flaws happen, they can have long-term effects on how we’ll recall that memory in the future" (Nash 2018).

"More recently it has spawned the system of GPS global positioning satellites that can give us a readout on our locations wherever we are" (Mowery 2019).