Prepositional Verbs

Prepositional verbs are just one category of multi-word verbs. Others are phrasal verbs, phrasal-prepositional verbs, and multi-word verb constructions.

Prepositional verbs consist of a verb plus a preposition (e.g. look at, think of).

How to Distinguish Prepositional Verbs from Phrasal Verbs

There is often some confusion about distinguishing particles from prepositions and you will often see lists of phrasal verbs (often without contextualizing examples) which contain prepositional verbs as well as phrasal verbs. There are a few ways of deciding if a word is a particle (and therefore part of a phrasal verb) or a preposition (and therefore part of a prepositional verb). First of all, particles have a connection to the preceding verb (having a type of adverbial function; in fact they are often called adverbial particles) whereas prepositions have a stronger connection to the following noun phrase (forming prepositional phrases, such as on the shelf, in the cupboard). Secondly, there is a fairly restricted set of words which are used as particles in phrasal verbs. The most commonly used particles are in, out, up, down, on, off. Others are about, across, around, away, back, over, through. Furthermore, the meaning of phrasal verbs cannot always be guessed by examining the meaning of the verb and the particle (rule out, turn up), whereas prepositional verbs are much more transparent.

Other methods of distinguishing particles from prepositions are:

Adverbs are not usually found between a verb and a particle but they may be between a verb and a preposition.

• "If you flip off the lights, your pupil will immediately open up" (Fairchild 2019). (Phrasal verb; we can't write open immediately up)
• "Darwin looked closely at the beaks of finches on the Galápagos Islands." (Graves 2019). (Prepositional verb; look up can have an adverb between the verb and the preposition)

Pronouns as objects are placed before a particle but after a preposition.

• "Here, the hemoglobin in red blood cells grabs oxygen and takes it back to the heart" (Sekeres 2022). (Phrasal verb; pronoun it before the participle back )
• "If a virus does sneak past the B cells and get into our cells, T cells can deal with it — they are the ninjas of our immune system!" (Quinn and Mehta 2020). (Prepositional verb; pronoun it after the preposition)

Prepositions can be placed before wh-words in questions and relative clauses. Particles cannot be placed in these positions.

• "“From each according to ability; To each according to need,” is a phrase derived from where?" (Bovens 2020). (prepositional verb; derive from. You could rewrite this question as "Where does this phrase derive from?")
• "Tuesday is named for the god Tiw, about whom relatively little is known" (Ross 2018). (prepositional verb; know about. Active: We know relatively little about the god Tiw. Passive: Relatively little is known about the god Tiw. In a relative clause: Tuesday is named for the god Tiw, about whom relatively little is known.)

In spoken language, particles are stressed but prepositions are not.

Clause patterns of prepositional verbs

Prepositional verbs take a prepositional object consisting of a preposition and a noun phrase. There are two common patterns:

NP + verb + preposition + NP

• "To identify a potential biomarker, we developed an algorithm that looked for patterns in brain activity changes as patients recovered" (Rozell and Alagapan 2023). (Intransitive and active)
• "Knowing these answers can lead to inventions of new materials and medicines" (Helms 2022). (Transitive, active)
• "Explosions result in energy going from one place to another, and usually a lot of it" (Lam 2020). (Intransitive and active)

NP + verb + NP + preposition + NP

• "Because the results of our study are based on a small sample of patients, it’s important to further investigate how broadly they can be applied to other patients and newer deep brain stimulation devices" (Rozell and Alagapan 2023). (Two examples in this sentence. Both transitive and passive.)
• "When it comes to conspiracy theories, the world is not divided into “believers” and “sceptics” - there’s a lot in between" (Byford 2020). (Transitive and passive)
• "Oil and gas companies are seen as climate villains." (Shearer 2023). (Transitive and passive)
  These passive constructions are passive verb + preposition + NP. To see their true character as NP + verb + NP + preposition + NP we need to change it to an active construction: "[People] see oil and gas companies as climate villains". These double object passive constructions are common in academic writing.

Distribution of Prepositional Verbs

Prepositional verbs are much more common in academic prose than phrasal verbs. Type 2 patterns are much more common in academic prose than type 1, and type 2 is often used in the passive (see examples below).

account for Definition: be responsible for, explain Type: Type 1; Intransitive Example: "In countries such as the UK, US and Canada, ultra-processed foods now account for 50% or more of calories consumed." (Hoffman 2022) "Globally, the production of dry pet food accounts for between 1.1% and 2.9% of agricultural emissions, up to 1.2% of agricultural land use and roughly 0.4% of agricultural water extraction." (Alexander 2023)

refer to Definition: indicate, mean, be defined as, concern, affect Type: Type 1; Transitive, active Example: "Inflation refers to a general increase in prices and the resulting decline in the purchasing power of money." (Li 2022)

come from Definition: originate, be caused by Type: Type 1; Intransitive Example: "Identical twins come from a single zygote that splits in two." (McEwen and Jacobs 2019) Meanings come from context, from convention, from older stories and from previous usage." (Gruner 2020)

depend on Definition: Need, rely on, take support or sustenance from Type: Type 1; Intransitive Example: "And many of our food plants – over 1,200 species – depend on pollinators to produce the fruit or seed that humans and other animals eat." (Langen 2022)

belong to Definition: be a part/member of Type: Type 1; Intransitive Example: "For an animal to be an actual “dinosaur”, it must belong to a group of animals known by scientists as Dinosauria." (Poropat 2020)

consist of Definition: be made of, Type: Type 1; Transitive, active Example: "The scent of a rose may consist of as many as 400 different chemicals." (Harkess 2021)

be applied to Definition: be used for/as Type: Type 2, transitive, passive Example: "Still others are surprised that the term “creativity” might be applied to to nonhuman entities like computers." (Guzik 2023) The type 2 pattern is more easily seen in the active version: "[We] might apply the term creativity to non human entities".

be used in Definition: put something to a particular purpose Type: Type 2; transitive, passive Example: "Chatbots like ChatGPT and Bard can be used in a variety of educational settings, from primary and secondary schools to universities and adult education courses." (Illingworth 2023) The type 2 pattern is more easily seen in the active version: "[We] can use Chatbots like ChatGPT and Bard in a variety of educational settings".

obtain from Definition: get, receive Type: Type 2; Transitive, active Example: "To obtain energy from the nucleus, scientists came up with a process of splitting a heavy atom into lighter atoms." (Wu 2021)

be known as Definition: recognize, call something by a particular name Type: Type 2; Transitive, passive Example: "This process of hydraulic fracturing is commonly known as fracking." (Shearman et al. 2023) The type 2 pattern is more easily seen in the active version: "[We] know this process of hydraulic fracturing as fracking".

be made of Definition: be constructed of, consist of Type: Type 2; Transitive, passive Example: "The mantle is mostly made of a mineral called olivine, which is a beautiful shade of green. " (Tostevin 2019)

be aimed at Definition: have the purpose of, target Type: Type 2: Intransitive, passive Example: "This activity is aimed at surviving the day and planning for the future." (Ashton 2022)

be filled with Definition: contain, make something full (with) Type: Type 2; Transitive, passive Example: "Recipe books from the period are filled with ideas for how to use the ingredient, from sprinkling on salad to a fine plum cake. " (Goodall 2020)

be seen in Definition: recognize, notice (an example of something) Type: Type 2; Transitive, passive Example: "This [source of pleasure] is seen in the popularity of practices such as print journalling and calligraphy. " (McKnight and Nicholas 2023) The type 2 pattern is more easily seen in the active version: "[We] see this [source of pleasure] in the popularity of practices such as print journalling and calligraphy".

be regarded as Definition: considered as, thought to be Type: Type 2; Transitive, passive Example: "Then, Latin and French were regarded as prestigious languages, applied by the elite in education, law and literature." (Braber 2018) The type 2 pattern is more easily seen in the active version: "[People] regarded Latin and French as prestigious languages".

be seen as Definition: considered as, thought of as Type: Type 2; Transitive, passive Example: "Oil and gas companies are seen as climate villains. " (Shearer 2023) The type 2 pattern is more easily seen in the active version: "[People] see oil and gas companies as climate villains".

be considered as Definition: be thought of as Type: Type 2; Transitive; passive Example: "Using hot baths or saunas shouldn’t be considered as a substitute for exercise." (Steward 2021) The type 2 pattern is more easily seen in the active version: "[We] shouldn't consider using hot baths or saunas as a substitute for exercise".

be defined as Definition: describe the characteristics of something, state the meaning of Type: Type 2; Transitive; passive Example: "The equator is defined as the plane, halfway between the North and South Poles. " (Webb 2021) "Creativity is often defined as the generation of ideas or insights that are novel and useful." (Zhu 2023)

contribute to Definition: add something, give help towards Type: Type 2; Transitive; active Example: "They contribute to the vitality of their communities and help develop tolerant and inclusive societies." (Addie 2017)

allow for Definition: permit, take into account Type: Type 1; Transitive; active Example: "Nanoparticles may also allow for human performance enhancements, ranging from better eyesight to soldiers engineered to be more effective in combat. " (Omberg 2023)

occur in Definition: happen, take place, exist Type: Type 1; Intransitive; active Example: "Sneezing is a phenomenon that occurs in both people and animals." (Sorg 2021)

differ from Definition: be unlike something Type: Type 1; Intransitive; active Example: "To be identified as “extreme”, a weather event must significantly differ from normal patterns, be associated with severe impacts and be historically infrequent." (Sambrook and Richardson 2019)

be involved in Definition: be in close relationship with something, connected with, be a part of Type: Type 2; Transitive; passive Example: "This [chronic inflammation] can cause tissue damage, and is involved in many chronic diseases – such as cancer and cardiovascular disease." (Hoffman 2022)

be associated with Definition: be connected with, related to Type: Type 2; Transitive; passive Example: "To be identified as “extreme”, a weather event must significantly differ from normal patterns, be associated with severe impacts and be historically infrequent." (Webb 2021)

be related to Definition: have a connection with, belong to the same family, species, group Type: Type 2; Transitive; passive Example: "Amazingly, the hand you use to write or throw a ball is often related to the side of the brain you use to speak." (Barton and Todorovic 2021)

be included in Definition: to contain something as a part of another entity Type: Type 2; Transitive; passive Example: "Activities which were central to every day life in low-income African countries – like fetching water, grinding corn, and weaving mats – were not included in national accounts." (Messac 2018)

be composed of Definition: be made of, consist of, have as members of a group Type: Type 2; Transitive; passive Example: "The smell of baking cookies, for instance, is composed of many odor molecules." (Lemons, Kenney, and Lin 2020)

rely on Definition: need, depend on, require Type: Type 1; Transitive; active Example: "Our bodies rely on the Sun to reset this cycle and keep it at precisely 24 hours, the length of our days." (Stevens 2015)

provide for Definition: supply, give Type: Type 2; Transitive; active Example: "They [mountains] can disturb air flow, affect global and regional climate and provide opportunities for plants and animals to evolve." (Duffy and McLaren 2021)

be compared with Definition: examine similarities and differences between two entities Type: Type 2; Transitive; passive Example: "These forecasts were compared with commonly used guidelines in film preservation." (Ahmad 2020) The type 2 pattern is more easily seen in the active version: "[We] compared these forecasts with commonly used guidelines in film preservation".

point to Definition: indicate, make a connection with, relate to Type: Type 1; Transitive; active Example: "The Absaroka coyote story points to how people with different languages might misunderstand or disagree with one another." (Manns and Burridge 2020)

stand for Definition: mean, represent Type: Type 1; Transitive; active Example: "REM stands for rapid eye movement." (Agostini 2019)

be placed in Definition: put, position, locate Type: Type 2; Transitive; passive Example: "I was passed to a nurse and then placed in cold metal scales to be weighed." (Justice, Conway, and Akhtar 2018) The type 2 pattern is more easily seen in the active version: "[A nurse] placed me in cold metal scales".

lead to Definition: put, position, locate Type: Type 1; Transitive; active Example: "Knowing these answers can lead to inventions of new materials and medicines" (Helms 2022)

look for Definition: seek, search for Type: Type 1; Transitive; active Example: "To identify a potential biomarker, we developed an algorithm that looked for patterns in brain activity changes as patients recovered." (Rozell and Alagapan 2023)

deal with Definition: act in order to solve a problem or achive an objective Type: Type 1; Transitive; active Example: "If a virus does sneak past the B cells and get into our cells, T cells can deal with it — they are the ninjas of our immune system!" (Quinn and Mehta 2020)

result in Definition: cause something to happen Type: Type 1; Transitive; active Example: "Explosions result in energy going from one place to another, and usually a lot of it" (Lam 2020)

be based on Definition: put, position, locate Type: Type 2; Transitive; passive Example: "Because the results of our study are based on a small sample of patients, it’s important to further investigate how broadly they can be applied to other patients and newer deep brain stimulation devices" (Rozell and Alagapan 2023)

be divided into Definition: separate into different parts Type: Type 2; Transitive; passive Example: "When it comes to conspiracy theories, the world is not divided into “believers” and “sceptics” - there’s a lot in between" (Byford 2020)

be derived from Definition: get, extract something from something else Type: Type 2; Transitive; passive Example: "Cinnamon, which cooks use in all kinds of baked goods, is derived from yet another plant part: the inner bark of tree species from the genus Cinnamomum." (Montgomery 2023)

See also phrasal verbs, phrasal-prepositional verbs and multi-word verbs.

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