Academic Word Choice

Word choice in academic writing

Your choice of words in an academic text may be affected not just by dictionary definitions but by other factors such as registerThe type of language (vocabulary, grammar, style) you are expected to use in a particular situation with particular people for a particular purpose., connotationsThe additional or incidental meanings, associations or references which a word, phrase or sentence might have in addition to its obvious core meaning. and collocationThe tendency of a particular word or phrase to be found in the proximity of another..

Academic EnglishA register of English writing characterised by its formality, impartiality, objectivity and absence of bias. is one type of register (other examples are fiction, conversation, news reporting), and academic prose has certain characteristics which should affect your choice of words, such as formality. We'll examine the factors which can affect your choice of words or phrases under the following headings:

• Register: Academic prose is not written in the same style as a chatty email or a novel. More about register;
• Denotation and Connotation: Words have different meanings in different contexts and some similar words are easily confused; make sure you have chosen the correct one. Some words suggest particular references or evoke particular  emotions; you may need to use or avoid these depending on the purpose of your text and your audience.   More about denotation and connotation;
• Collocation: Many words which seem to be exact synonyms are in fact not. They may be used in different contexts and have different collocates. Understanding collocation can help you choose the correct word for a particular context. More about collocation;

Register

A register is a variety of English used by a particular group of people for a particular purpose. In the case of academic English the particular group comprises students and scholars of a particular academic disciple. The purpose is to communicate data, research, findings, and to discuss their implications. Academic writing is serious, impersonal, formal, objective, rational, analytical, and unbiased (see the glossary definitionA register of English writing characterised by its formality, impartiality, objectivity and absence of bias.). All of this has implications for your choice of words. For example, to be objective, rational and analytical you need to be precise. Vague, general words do not help. Academic writing is serious writing (this does not mean it has to be boring or inelegant) and therefore does not use informal words, colloquialisms or clichés. Academic writing is impersonal. It is concerned with presenting information backed up by evidence not with personal unsubstantiated opinion.

You should be using:

• explicit rather than general terms
• Don't use superordinateBeing at a higher or more general level than something else. terms where you are discussing something more particular: car (or bus, lorry, ...) rather than vehicle; dog (or cat, mouse, squirrel, ...) rather than animal; apple, (or pear, mango, cherry, ...) rather than fruit
• Superordinate terms may be used where they are used to refer to something already mentioned in a text (see anaphoric nouns).
• formal rather than informal words or phrases
• "Single word verbs" rather than multi-word verbs: continue rather than go on; establish rather than set up; compensate rather than make up for (however, sometimes a multi-word verb is what you need).
• Full forms rather than contracted forms: has not rather than hasn't; did not rather than didn't; are not rather than aren't
• Formal words rather than colloquialisms: children rather than kids; many rather than lots; food rather than grub
• Avoid idiomsA fixed phrase in which normal rules of grammar may be broken and whose meaning may not be obvious from the words themselves., clichésA phrase which has become fixed and is overused., or euphemismsA word or phrase used to substitute for an unpleasant, taboo, or offensive one, or one used for humorous effect..
• impersonal rather than personal forms
• Avoid using personal pronoun such as "I", "we".
• Do get used to using the passive voice, especially where mention of an agent is not necessary.

Denotation and Connotation

The denotation of a word is its core meaning. Since a word may have more than one meaning there may be more than one denotation. Each denotation may have connotations, which are associations, references, ideas or emotions which spring to mind or are evoked when this word is used. These connotations should affect whether you use a particular word or not. Let's take the example of the words 'government', 'administration', 'regime'. You might find these words if you search for synonyms for any one of them. But they are not true synonyms (which in fact are quite rare). "government" is a fairly neutral word for a system of rule; "administration" is usually used for government by a particular political party; "regime" has strongly negative connotations and is normally used by writers who have strongly negative opinions about the government they are writing about. You can often get a good idea about both meaning and connotation by examining their collocates:

• federal, local, state, central, French, national government
• local, the Clinton, the Obama, the Bush, central, state administration
• new, old, communist, military, authoritarian, colonial, totalitarian regime

• "If the government jails, taxes or fines people because it disagrees with what they say, it violates the First Amendment." (Norton 2020) - There is no qualifier here; 'government' is used in its broadest general sense.
• "Joe Biden’s administration is over. Though we have an extensive record, it is difficult to assess his presidency." (Shortis and Byrne 2025) - 'administration' is used because it refers to the government of one particular legislature; that of Joe Biden.
• "Using clear terminology to represent the experience of people living under toxic regimes is important for thinking about the possibilities of dissent balanced by the pressures to conformism." (Shorten 2022) - 'regimes' is used because of the word's negative connotation, reinforced by the adjective 'toxic'.

Collocation

Collocation can provide a great deal of help in choosing an appropriate word. Let's suppose, for example, that you are discussing a device or machine. If your first language is not English you may wonder if you have the right word. Is it a device or a machine? Or perhaps a tool or an instrument. Or maybe a piece of equipment or a utensil. Dictionary definitions for these words can help you choose but only when you see their collocates do you get a feel for how native speakers use these similar words. Here are some examples of how the following set of similar words are used in real texts (tool, machine, equipment, device, apparatus, machinery, appliance, instrument):

power toolIt’s considered the first portable electric power tool, and arguably helped to democratise the industry, putting construction in the hands of everyone from labourers to hobbyists. (Pandolfo and Lee 2017), powerful toolHandwritten notes are a powerful tool for encrypting embodied cognition and in turn supporting the brain’s capacity for retrieval of information. (Roessingh 2020), management toolThe success of our study indicates we could use this approach as a new management tool – one that works by influencing the animals’ behaviour rather than trying to get rid of them. (McArthur, Finnerty, and Banks 2024), search toolSupposing a student realized that in an e-mail received from the national archives of his country, the archivist used the word “finding aid” as a search tool. (Alaoui 2023), useful toolFor all the attention on flashy new artificial intelligence tools like ChatGPT, the challenges of regulating AI, and doomsday scenarios of superintelligent machines, AI is a useful tool in many fields. (Hollis 2023), machine toolsChina is expected to continue to provide Russia with goods that can be used to bolster Russia’s arms production, in particular machine tools. (Kaczmarski and Kuhrt 2024), marketing toolSport works particularly well as a marketing tool for three main reasons. , assessment toolMore than 400 pupils aged six to ten from four schools were assessed between October 2012 and June 2013 using the same assessment tool as that from studies done to children in the United States. (Rudd 2015), development toolBy promoting traditional, typical and regional products with an origin-based label, terroir has become a valuable economic development tool for many EU rural regions. (Mazé 2016), important toolRather than replacing architects, as some have pessimistically predicted, algorithms are becoming an important tool for building designers. (Carta 2020), research toolBig data, combined with genomics, is an extremely powerful research tool, offering tantalising opportunities to gain insight into major challenges to human health. (Arnold and Bonython 2019)

slot machineSlot machine manufacturers design the gambling experience to confuse and manipulate players’ emotions in an effort to keep players gambling. (Brown and Harrigan 2014), washing machineHere are some things to know about reducing microplastic pollution from your washing machine. (Weis 2024), sewing machineReady-made clothing developed in 1860s Australia with the uptake of Isaac Singer’s sewing machine. (McNeil 2023), fax machineThe fax machine is a symbol of obsolete technology long superseded by computer networks – but faxing is actually growing in popularity. (Coopersmith 2019), time machineAs often portrayed in science fiction, with a time machine, nothing is permanent anymore — you can always go back and change it. (Shoshany 2022), vending machineOur first study involved a vending machine choice between a medium-sized bag of Lay’s Baked BBQ potato chips and a smaller package of the regular version – both 150 calories. (Haws and Liu 2020), new machineWith this powerful new machine, we’ve been able to produce the clearest image yet of the centre of our galaxy – you can see it at the top of this story. (Whittam 2018), espresso machineThere are a limited number of technologies that achieve 8 to 10 percent concentrations, the espresso machine being the most familiar. (Hendon 2017), state machineIn particular, we’ve found that countries with the most state capacity – the capability of the state machine to design and deliver policies – reduce income poverty faster, up to twice the speed of those with the least. (Savoia and Asadullah 2019)

office equipmentIn the Philippines – home to a large hub of international telehealth operators – green information technologies such as recyclable office equipment and remote working are used to reduce the environmental costs associated with communication. (Thompson 2021), sports equipmentThere are four kinds of adaptive fitness tools on the market: exercise equipment and accessories, exercise machines, sports equipment and fitness apps. (Jamieson 2024), fitness equipmenttill, home-based training brought difficulties for the women we surveyed: 76% said their training volumes had decreased and 94% reported difficulties in accessing fitness equipment to maintain conditioning. (Bowes 2020), medical equipmentSuch a law would enable qualified technicians, including those working for hospitals, to repair vital medical equipment such as powered wheelchairs, cochlear implants and ventilators. (Tusikov 2024), test equipmentThe Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) regulates medical devices, ranging from plastic gloves through to pacemakers, and is responsible for authorising new test equipment. (Arnold 2021), electrical equipmentAbrupt shifts in demand can cause voltage fluctuations, which may damage electrical equipment. (Srivastava 2024), computer equipmentIf a standing desk, voice-recognition software (to help mitigate memory loss or concentration issues) or other computer equipment would be helpful, ask how you can request it. (Nachmias 2022), exercise equipmentThere are four kinds of adaptive fitness tools on the market: exercise equipment and accessories, exercise machines, sports equipment and fitness apps. (Jamieson 2024), safety equipmentThey look at air traffic control activity and instructions, weather, human performance issues like crew experience and training, maintenance records, emergency response, safety equipment, aircraft performance and subsystems. (Adjekum 2019), protective equipmentIn clinical settings, masks are normally used as part of personal protective equipment (PPE). (Kolstoe 2020), heavy equipmentFarmers use heavy equipment in fields, so antennas must be buried deep enough to avoid damage. (Salam 2022)

medical devicesA smartwatch is not a medical device as defined by law. In the UK, medical devices are strictly regulated in a way that other devices such as smartwatches are not. (Lau 2024), mobile devicesAdvances in digital media and mobile devices, and the rising power of social media, are changing the way people engage not only with the world but also with close friends and family. (Bay 2017), storage devicesMost digital information is stored in three types of location. First is the global collection of what are called endpoints, which include all internet of things devices, PCs, smartphones and all other information storage devices. (Vopson 2021), input devicesIn order to interact with 3D content in virtual environments, modern VR systems almost universally use 3D input devices such as controllers or wands, tracked in 3D typically using cameras positioned facing outward on the device. (Teather and McArthur 2024), internet devicesWe will also ask providers about their likelihood to use new treatments – like telemedicine or treatments delivered through mobile or internet devices – in their practice. (Lister 2017), control devices“Smart” home control devices promise to do many things, including helping households reduce their energy bills. (Nicholls and Strengers 2017), wireless devicesIn addition, 5G systems offer the possibility of providing reliable connections to massive numbers of wireless devices simultaneously. (Rabaey 2018), handheld devicesRelatively inexpensive and reasonably accurate handheld devices are now available to measure contaminants and could be used to monitor compliance. (Hanmer 2022), electronic deviceSemiconductors are a critical part of almost every modern electronic device, and the vast majority of semiconductors are made in Tawain. (Thornton 2022), output deviceThe only familiar output device was a speaker (called the hooter), and it was used to track the progress of a program. (Doornbusch 2016)

breathing apparatusFree divers swim to extreme depths underwater (the current record is 214m) without any breathing apparatus. Champions can hold their breath for extraordinary amounts of time – the record for women is nine minutes, and men 11. (Fong 2018), security apparatusAs articles published by The Conversation Africa have illustrated, the global body’s peace and security apparatus has failed to bring peace to some of the continent’s worst conflict zones. (Spooner 2024), administrative apparatusIt is hypothesised that these projects refined the administrative apparatus and fuelled the Egyptian economy. (Winkler 2018), experimental apparatusAn example of a task that requires only a narrow range of cognitive skills might be one that gets students to apply a learned procedure to construct a piece of art or experimental apparatus. (Ellerton 2015), scientific apparatusAdding to the impacts are ongoing demands to expand stations. This might be to provide new scientific apparatus to answer new questions, house more people, improve logistical capacity, or increase the safety of ageing infrastructure. (Brooks 2023), state apparatusNo stranger to harassment and intimidation by Cambodia’s increasingly repressive sstate apparatus, Dara had told me when we last met that he was considering applying for political asylum abroad. (Lawreniuk 2024), special apparatusIn our research, we tested number processing in bees by individually training them with special apparatus to collect a sugary reward, and learn the rules of “less than” considering the numbers 1 – 6. (Dyer, Avarguès-Weber, and Howard 2018)

industrial machineryBut when steam power and industrial machinery came along in the 18th century, economic activity took off. (Vardi 2017), farm machineryThe study points out that as the weight of farm machinery has grown, tyre sizes have ballooned too, adjusting the area of contact between the vehicle with the soil to reduce the pressure on the surface and help avoid sinking. (Davies and Quinton 2022), electrical machineryHe was, however, a wizard with electrical machinery – especially the newly invented radar that he would jury-rig to help pilots better find their way home on dark, cloudy nights. (Higgins 2021), heavy machineryNot having to till the soil has other benefits, especially for farmers as there’s less preparation to do. It can dramatically reduce how much diesel farms need to burn, as farmers need less heavy machinery. (Cooper, Mooney, and Sjogersten 2021), administrative machineryIf Australia is to get culture any time soon, it will need leadership from the centre. The administrative machinery and money are there (despite our complaints). (Meyrick 2013), construction machineryThere are already signs that supply chains around the world are being affected by the bridge collapse, especially in the car and light truck sector, and in farm and construction machinery. (Chryssanthopoulos 2024), mining machineryStokes also has a controlling interest in the mining equipment company WesTrac, which supplies Caterpillar mining machinery. (Dwyer 2023)

home applianceAs an example, the increase in energy prices in early 2022 led to a rise in steel prices in late 2022, reaching home appliance prices in early 2023, and the price of goods sold in shops only in recent months. (Macau 2023), household appliancesAustralians have a love affair with household appliances. (Wiseman 2024), domestic applianceIf people are to change their behaviour, tech and domestic appliance companies need to promote awareness of repair options, the benefits of repair, and how to go about repairing (for example, providing an easily accessible list of professional repairers). (Tjahjono and Steenmans 2022), gas applianceThere will be impacts and benefits for the local economy. Some jobs may be lost, particularly in the gas appliance and plumbing industry. (Pears, Hurley, and Moore 2023)

musical instrumentA good memory is important for playing a musical instrument, such as playing music from memory, and this seems to translate to people’s cognitive performance. (Hornberger 2024), statutory instrumentThe British Indian Ocean Territory was established through a statutory instrument, which legally detached the islands from Mauritius without requiring parliamentary oversight. (Brocklesby 2024), measuring instrumentThe aim is to develop a standardised measuring instrument. This instrument will measure participation prior to implementation. (Ismail 2021), survey instrumentThe high-resolution survey instrument we used, a multibeam echosounder, is routinely used by earth scientists, harbour authorities and archaeologists to map the seafloor. (Simmons 2024), financial instrumentFor instance, savings accounts are a safe financial instrument that earn interest on the amount accumulated within the account. But the fact they’re so safe also means that they won’t outperform inflation. (Zeka 2023), stringed instrumentThe oud is a lute, a stringed instrument used across North Africa. (Breyley 2018), effective instrumentTaken together, our findings suggest that policies that increase access to preschools can be an effective instrument to improve learning outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa, as they have already been in other parts of the world. (Bietenbeck 2019)

Notes on these headwords and their collocates

At a first glance you might think that all of the above headwords have a single denotation (core meaning) but a modifier in the form of an adjective or noun can change that; a musical instrument has nothing in common with a survey instrument.

If you just look at the headwords (tool, machine, equipment, device, apparatus, machinery, appliance, instrument) you might think of them all as physical objects; you can visualise a machine, a device, an appliance, an instrument, and so on. However, if you look at some of their collocates you can see that they may refer to things which are more abstract than physical items. Management tools may be procedures, strategies or software for dealing with particular management issues. Administrative machinery refers to the structure and processes of government. A statutory instrument is a particular type of law enacted by delegated officials. So you can see that a collocate (in the form of a noun premodifier) may given the headword an extended meaning from its core definition. In fact, you may not find these meanings listed in a normal dictionary under the headword. Other examples in the above list are 'search tool', 'research tool', 'marketing tool', assessment tool', 'state machine', 'security apparatus', 'administrative apparatus', 'state apparatus', 'financial instrument'.

Also, as mentioned above, these headwords can be considered as superordinate terms. As such they are often used as anaphoric nounsNouns which are used to refer back to something already mentioned in a text.. You can see examples of this anaphoric use of these words in this article in The Conversation. Look for 'these machines', 'these adaptive exercise tools', 'these features'.

You might also note that although the headwords in the above examples have very similar meanings, of the 84 collocates shown only 5 are shared with other headwords. The collocates given are only some of the most common ones for each headword and many could be used with the other headwords, but this is an indication that so-called synonyms are not true synonyms; they are not used in the same way in the same context or with identical collocates.